

INTRODUCTIO 
I AMERICAN HISTORY 



\VOODBURN 5/- MO RAN 





Class --J^^-^-ru- 
Book 



n 



Copyright N' 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



INTEODUCTION TO 
AMEEICAN HISTORY 



BY 



JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN 

Professor of American History and Politics in Indiana University 



AND 



THOMAS FRANCIS MORAN 

Professor of History and Economics in Purdue University 



LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 

FOURTH AVENUE & 30th STREET, NEW YORK 
PRAIRIE AVENUE & 25th STREET, CHICAGO 

1916 



.W15 



COPYRIGHT, I916 
BY LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. 





m 24 1916 



7^ 






PREFACE 

"-- It is not possible for a pupil to take up the study of 

y American history intelligently without knowing something 

4^.^^ of the European background. Events and conditions in 

Europe throw light upon the early history of the United 

States. This little book is intended to furnish that Euro- 

^ pean background. By making use of it the pupil will be 

able to take up, in a more satisfactory way than would 

) otherwise be possible, the formal study of American history 

in the seventh grade. It may seem somewhat strange at 

first thought that an introduction to American history 

should extend so far back into the history of Europe, but 

the fact is that the roots of our history strike far back into 

European soil. 

The book fulfills the requirements of the Committee of 
Eight of the American Historical Association and, in , ad- 
dition, presents an introductory chapter on ''The Dawn of 
History." If it is desired to adhere strictly to the recom- 
mendations of the Committee the first chapter of the book 
should be omitted. We believe, however, that a study of 
this chapter will add very greatly to the effectiveness of the 
course. 

Acknowledgments are due for the following pictures in 
the book: to The Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, for 
''Model of a Phoenician Vessel"; to The Encylopaedia Bri- 
tannica Corporation, New York, for "Xerxes Watching the 
Battle of Salamis" and "Phidias Building the Parthenon"; 
to the Mentor Association, New York, for "Coronado on 
the March," "Magellan Landing at the Philippines" and 
"Cartier at Montreal"; and to Mr. G. A. Reid, Toronto, 
for "The Coming of the White Man. " 

James Albert Woodburn 
Thomas Francis Moran 

iii 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Dawn of History 1 

II. The Rise of the Greeks 18 

III. The Greeks as Writers 30 

IV. The Greeks as Builders and Artists 44 

V. Greek Life and Character 50 

VI. The Spread of Greek Civilization 58 

VII. The Romans as the Successors of the Greeks 67 

VIII. The Romans Conquer the We]st 79 

IX. Rome, The Capital of the Empire 88 

X. Christianity in the Roman Empire 96 

XI. The Germans, the Successors and Heirs of 

THE Romans 102 

XII. The Spread of Christianity 112 

XIII. Alfred and the English 122 

XIV. The Coming of the Normans 133 

XV. King John and the Fight for English Liberty 143 

XVI. English Life in the Middle Ages 149 

XVII. Pilgrims and Explorers 158 

XVIII. The Beginnings of Discovery 176 

XIX. Columbus Seeks a Route to India 188 

XX. The Successors of Columbus 220 

XXI. The Beginnings of Conquest 233 

XXII. England as a Rival of Spain 246 

XXIII. France as a Rival of Spain 257 

V 



vi CONTENTS 

XXIV. The Dutch Fight against their Ruler, the 

King of Spain 266 

XXV. Englishmen Join in the Fight against Spain . 270 
XXVI. The Early Attempts of the English to Found 

Colonies in North America 282 

Suggestions to Teachers 295 

Index 305 



LIST OF MAPS 

PAGE 

The Early Oriental World {Colored) facing 4 

The Persian Empire 15 

Greece in Ancient Times 19 

Colonies of Greece {Colored) facing 58 

Alexander's Empire 65 

Rome and Carthage 73 

The Roman Empire at the Height of Its Power {Colored) . . between 90, 91 

Europe in the Early Centm-ies of the Christian Era 103 

England in the Middle Ages II3 

Normandy and Southeast England in 10(36 136 

The Routes of the Crusades {Colored) facing 162 

Trade Routes to the East I77 

The Known World at the Time of Columbus 191 

The Voyages of Columbus 214 

The Discoveries of Columbus 215 

Early Voyages of Discovery and the Pope's Line of Division .... 221 

Magellan's Expedition, 1519-1522 227 

Early French Settlements 232 

The Scene of the Conquest by Cortez 237 

The Route of De Soto's Expedition 241 

Drake's Voyage around the Globe 255 

The Flight of the Spanish Armada 280 

French, Spanish, and English Explorations in America up to 1600 . . 283 

Early Settlements of the EngHsh, French, and Spanish in the New World 291 



vu 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

CHAPTER I 
THE DAWN OF HISTORY 

America **The New Part." In thinking about the 
United States of America we should always bear in mind 
that our country is a part of the ^^New World." Before 
Columbus made his famous voyage of discovery in 1492, 
the great American continents, stretching almost from pole 
to pole, were unknown. No one had dreamed of the ex- 
istence of this great body of land. Parts of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa had been known for centuries and these three 
parts are now called the ^'Old World." 

The naming of this ''New Part" took place in 1507. 
It came about in this way. Martin Waldseemiiller, a 
German college professor, in writing the introduction to a 
geography, suggested that the newly discovered continent 
be named America in honor of Americus Vespucius, to 
whom he gave the credit of discovering it. He spoke of 
the continent as the ''new" or "fourth part" of the globe; 
Europe, Asia and Africa being the other three. 

Now in thinking about this "new" or "fourth part" of 
the world, we should remember that the history of the 
New World is based upon that of the Old. The men who 
built homes and founded colonies in the New World came 
from various parts of the Old, more particularly from 
Europe. And they brought with them their tools and 



2 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

machines, as well as their knowledge of art and agriculture, 
of government and religion, of science and invention. 
The history of the Old World was thus carried over and 
continued in the New. The American colonist in his new 
home did not begin all over again. His history in the New 
World begins where it left off in the Old. This same thing 
would occur at the present time if a group of your neigh- 




Rameses and His Lions 
Rameses, the great Egyptian king and conqueror, lived about 1350 b.c. He 
is represented here in a great triumphal procession with his lions at his side. 

bors and friends should emigrate and make homes in some 
new land. They would carry with them certain parts of 
their civilization and we are going to learn that the Ameri- 
can Colonists did likewise. 

The Roots of American History. Since the roots of 
American history extend back into the soil of the Old 
World, we should know something of the history of this 
Old World if we would understand the history of our own 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 




4 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

country. We should know in a general way what men did 
and learned and thought, before America was discovered in 
1492. 

The Cradle of Our Civilization. The history of the 
world begins with the people of the far East or the Orient, 
as it is called. The cradle of the world's civilization was 
in the valleys of the Nile and Euphrates Rivers, two of the 
most wonderful and interesting river valleys in the world. 
Here history begins with the Egyptians and Chaldeans. 
Let us glance for a moment at the early achievements of 
these eastern nations. 

The Egyptians. There was a very good reason why an 
early civilization should spring up on the banks of the 
Nile River. The climate was mild and the soil fertile and 
it was very easy to obtain food and clothing there. One 
could get a living almost without working at all. Each 
year when the heavy rains came in the mountains, near the 
sources of the river, the Nile overflowed its banks and left 
a layer of fertile mud over all the surrounding country. 
Grain was scattered broadcast in this rich loam and one 
of the ancient writers tells us that it was trampled into 
the ground by cattle, goats and sheep. The result was a 
bountiful harvest, almost without labor on the part of the 
farmer. Egypt was called ''The Granary of the Medi- 
terranean World" and often furnished food to other peoples 
besides her own. You will recall the story of Joseph and 
the other sons of Jacob who went into Egypt to purchase 
corn when famine had stricken their own land. 

Grain, however, was not the only crop raised by the 
early Egyptian. In his garden he had peas, beans, 
radishes, lettuce, cucumbers, and onions. In his vine- 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 5 

yard he raised an abundance of grapes from which he 
made his own wine. He also raised clover for his cattle 
and flax for his clothing. If you could take a peep into 
his barnyard, you would see sheep, cows, goats, pigs, 
ducks, geese, and pigeons, as well as antelopes, gazelles, 
and storks. Chickens were not known to him and he did 
not domesticate the horse until a later time. Some of 
these animals, however, were not much like those to be 
found now on an American farm. The pig, for example, 
was very thin and scrawny, more hke the wild hogs or 
^^razor-backs" which ranged at one time through our 
forests. 

Since the water for the farmer's fields came all at once, 
it was necessary for him to store up a part of it for future 
use, so the Egyptian built reservoirs and canals and 
irrigated his land in much the same way that some of our 
Western farmers are doing at the present time. One of 
these reservoirs was known as Lake Moeris. It was many 
miles in diameter and was found to be in perfect condition 
when examined by a Roman engineer, two thousand years 
after it was built. These old Egyptians made things in a 
very substantial way. 

As it was so easy to make a living, the Egyptian found 
it possible to turn his attention to other things. He was 
especially skillful in architecture. His buildings were, as a 
rule, massive and very durable. The best example of this 
kind of architecture is the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, which 
is still standing, although built about five thousand years 
ago. This huge structure, the largest in the world, covers 
thirteen acres of land and is four hundred and eighty-one 
feet high. It contains more than two million blocks of 



6 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

stone, some of them weighing more than fifty tons. Its 
faces were beautifully polished and its joints so nicely 
fitted together that they could scarcely be seen with the 
naked eye. Thirty years of the hardest kind of labor 




Building the Pyramids 

were required to build this pyramid. The blocks of stone 
were quarried in the mountains, dragged down to the Nile, 
and then conveyed on rafts to the site of the pyramid. All 
this was done by hand. The horse was not in use among 
the Egyptians and hoisting machinery was apparently not 
known. These pyramids were the tombs of the kings. 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 



Upon his private dwelling, however, the Egyptian 
did not spend very much time or labor. He lived in 
a rude house, consisting of a wooden frame covered with 
clay, dried in the sun. These houses were very perishable. 
But the Temple of Karnak, 
one fourth of a mile long, 
still exists as a splendid and 
impressive ruin after en- 
during the storms of thou- 
sands of years. 

In science, for a beginner 
the Egyptian did wonder- 
ful things. The flood 
washed away his boundary 
lines each year; hence he 
had need of geometry and 
surveying in order to fix 
the line fences. The clear 
climate and the level plains 
were favorable to a study 
of the heavens; hence, he 
made advances in astron- 
omy. He calculated the 
length of the year to be 
nearly three hundred sixty- 
five and one fourth days 
and divided it into months, 
thus making the calendar which, with a few minor correc- 
tions, we use to-day. He foretold eclipses, knew the points of 
the compass, used the decimal system, invented a good 
system of weights and measures, and measured time by 




The "Hall of Columns," Temple 

OF Karnak 
Only the ruins remain now of this 
wonderful structure. The picture 
shows how it must have looked in 
the days of Egypt's greatness. 
These gigantic columns were built 
entirely by hand and decorated with 
curious pictures and writing. It 
must have taken the labor of thou- 
sands of men for many years. 



8 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

means of the sun-dial and the water-clock. In arithmetic 
he used figures as high as millions, and in constructing his 
buildings, he used the principles of the arch, the lever, and 
the inclined plane. 

When we review the civilization of ancient Egypt we are 
almost tempted to say that there is ^'nothing new under 
the sun." Egypt certainly made a good beginning and we 
should remember that the Nile River was at the foundation 
of her prosperity. An old Greek writer called Egypt, "the 
gift of the Nile," and certainly the Nile River largely 
made Egypt what she was. 

The Chaldeans. The little tongue of land between the 
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers was occupied in very ancient 
times by another important people, the Chaldeans, or the 
Babylonians, as they are sometimes called. This is one of 
the most famous little strips of land in the world. It has 
been called, "the graveyard of empires and nations," 
because so many different peoples lived and died on the 
little peninsula. 

The civiUzation of Chaldea was much like that of Egypt. 
The life of the people in old Chaldea was based upon her 
two great rivers in much the same way that the fife of the 
Egyptians was based upon the Nile. 

Agriculture was the principal occupation and the land 
was made exceptionally fertile by irrigation from the rivers. 
In fact, the crops were so marvelously large that the old 
Greek historian, Herodotus, who traveled in Chaldea, said 
that he was afraid to tell the whole truth about them for 
fear people would not believe him; and Herodotus, as you 
may find out sometime, did not hesitate to tell some pretty 
big stories about what he saw. 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 9 

Brick-making, next to agriculture, was the most impor- 
tant industry. The Chaldeans, unlike the Egyptians, did 
not have stone for their buildings and used brick almost 
entirely. These bricks were made from clay which was 
very easy to get in this country. Some of the bricks were 
dried in the sun, and others baked in kilns. On the whole, 
they made rather poor building material, and yet the 
Chaldeans built some notable buildings from them. The 
Tower Temple, for example, rose in the shape of a pyramid, 
story after story, above the plain and was used as a temple 
for religious worship and for observing the stars, as well. 

From these rude bricks were also made the famous 
elevated gardens, in imitation of mountain scenery. The 
most noted of these were the ^'Hanging Gardens," built by 
the King Nebuchadnezzar for the pleasure of his queen, who 
formerly lived in the Median mountains and hungered for 
mountain scenery. These famous gardens were considered, 
as you know, one of the '^ Seven wonders of the world." 

In science, the Chaldeans were as far advanced as the 
Egyptians and in some respects, more so. They were also 
exceedingly practical in making use of their scientific 
knowledge. They invented the potter's wheel and used 
the arch in the construction of aqueducts. They knew 
the use of the lever and pulley and devised a good system 
of weights and measures. They divided time into years, 
months, weeks, days, hours, minutes and seconds and 
measured it by the sun-dial in the day time and by the 
water-clock at night. They predicted echpses, made maps 
of the heavens, and marked out the course of the sun. 
This was not a simple thing to do. Would you think it an 
easy task to go out into the night and study the stars as 



10 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



the Chaldeans did without teachers, books, or instruments, 
except those of the simplest and rudest kind? Of course, 
some of this was a very crude kind of astronomy, and had 
to do with fortune-telling by means of the stars, but we 
should remember that even the English people attempted 




The Hanging Gardens of Babylon 

to tell fortunes by the stars as late as the time of Queen 
Ehzabeth, in the sixteenth century. 

Egypt and Chaldea, then, as the ''twin sources of the 
world's culture" made many notable contributions to 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 



11 



civilization which we in America are making use of at the 
present time. When we get our first ghmpse of these 
people away back in ancient times we discover that they 
were not barbarians by any means. 

The Phoenicians. These two nations, however, are not 
the only ones that were prominent in the dawn of history. 
The Phoenicians were also important. They lived on the 
narrow strip of ter- 
ritory, one hundred 
and fifty miles long 
and ten to fifteen 
miles wide, at the 
eastern end of the 
Mediterranean Sea 
(see map facing p. 
4) . Here with their 
backs to the Leb- 
anon mountains 
and their faces to- 
wards the sea, they 
came, naturally 
enough, at a very 
early time to be sea- 
faring men. They were the sailors, traders, and colonizers of 
the ancient oriental world. As early as 1500 b.c, the Medi- 
terranean was dotted with their ships — small open boats 
propelled by oars and sails. They almost had a monopoly 
of the sea. The north star was called the '^ Phoenicians' 
Star," because it guided the course of the Phoenicians' 
boats. At that time the mariner's compass which is used 
on all ships now-a-days was not known. In these frail 




Model of a Phoenician Ship 

These swift and trim little boats were the first 
carriers of commerce on the Mediterranean 
Sea. They were propelled by sails and oars 
and weathered many fierce gales. 



12 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

vessels the Phoenicians traversed every part of the Medi- 
terranean Sea and even ventured out at times into the 
Atlantic Ocean. In their trading journeys by land and 
sea they brought amber from the Baltic, tin from Britain, 
and ostrich feathers from Ethiopia. 

Some of the products of Phoenicia were famous the 
world over. The cedars of Lebanon, for example, fur- 
nished excellent ship timber and made the tallest and 
the straightest masts; the glass of Sidon, beautifully 
colored, cut and polished, was eagerly sought every- 
where; and the purple dye, made from a snail or shell- 
fish found near Tyre, was used to color the robes of kings 
and queens. 

The Phoenicians also took large contracts from neighbor- 
ing peoples. They built ships and rented or sold them; 
they made a voyage around Africa for the Egyptians; 
they built the bridges across the Hellespont over which 
an army of a million Persians invaded Greece; and they 
furnished some of the material and did a large part of the 
finer work on Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. 

The greatest importance of the Phoenicians, however, 
does not lie in what they made or in what they found out 
for themselves. The most important thing they did was 
to take the inventions and ideas of other peoples and 
spread them far and wide. For this reason they have 
been called ^'the missionaries of civilization." For ex- 
ample, they obtained the alphabet, probably from the 
Egyptians, and, having made some improvements upon it, 
gave it to the Greeks; the Greeks gave it to the Romans 
and the Romans handed it down to the Germans and 
other peoples of modern Europe. Thus, the Phoenician 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 



13 



alphabet with its twenty-two characters is the basis of the 
alphabet which we are using to-day. 

The Hebrews. The Hebrews were also an interesting 




Building Solomon's Temple 

The Temple at Jerusalem was one of the most famous buildings in the world. 
It was built by King Solomon with the assistance of skilled workmen from 
Phoenicia. The Phoenicians also furnished some of the buildmg material. 

and important people in this early time. They were 
mostly shepherds and therefore different from the three 
peoples already described. While the civilization of 
Egypt and Chaldea was based on their great rivers and 



14 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

that of Phoenicia upon the sea, the foundation of Hebrew 
civihzation was rehgion. The Hebrews did very httle to 
advance the material civihzation of the world. They were 
not ^'mighty builders," like the Egyptians, or great traders 
like the Phoenicians; they were not famous in science or 
art, or invention, but they have the proud distinction of 
being the great moral and religious teachers of the world. 
Nations before them had religions of various kinds but 
the Hebrews were the first to worship one supreme God. 
This constituted a purer and more elevating form of 
religion than any other. 

After a time the religion of the Hebrews developed into 
Christianity and thus became the religion of a large part 
of the people of the world. The Hebrews also gave us the 
Ten Commandments, 'Hhe noblest brief collection of the 
laws of right living that has come down from the ancient 
world.'' When we consider the writings of the Hebrews 
and their religious influence upon the civilized world, we 
must give to this nation a high place among the historic 
peoples of ancient times. 

The country which the Hebrews occupied was known as 
Palestine and lay south of Phoenicia (see map facing p. 4). 
It was a small country, only one hundred and fifty miles 
long and one hundred miles wide — a mere dot on the face 
of the globe — and yet within these narrow bounds great 
things were done by such Hebrew kings as Saul, ^Hhe 
mighty man of valor," David, ^Hhe sweet singer of Israel," 
and Solomon, proverbial for his wisdom. And still greater 
things were done by the Hebrew prophets and teachers. 
Interesting stories of these great men are to be found in 
the Old Testament. 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 



15 



The Persians. And now a word about another eastern 
people — the Persians. These were also quite different 
from the other peoples already mentioned. They did not 
seem to care much for art or literature. Their architecture 
was rather poor and they did not do much in science. 
They were, however, noted in another direction. They 



^t\_^ 




The Persian Empire 



were famous as soldiers and governors. They were the 
empire builders of their day. Persia was at first a small dis- 
trict of country lying near the Persian Gulf (see map facing 
p. 4). But under its famous kings, Cyrus, Cambyses, and 
Darius, it expanded into a great empire, extending from 
the Indus River on the east to the Aegean Sea on the 
west — a distance of more than three thousand miles. 



16 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

It was from five hundred to fifteen hundred miles in width 
and had a population of seventy-five million — ■ three 
fourths as many people as there are in the United States 
to-day. If it could be moved to the westward, the Persian 
Empire would cover more than one half of the map of 
Europe. It embraced all of the known world except India 
and China on the east and Greece and Carthage on the 
west. The Persians, then, were the conquerors, rulers, 
and governors — the Romans of their day. 

We are not inclined in these days to praise a conqueror 
who takes possession of the country of a weaker nation, 
but it should be said in favor of these Persians that they 
united the East under a much better form of government 
than it had ever known before. The tribes which had 
been warring with each other for centuries were compelled 
to live together in peace and harmony under Persian rule 
for two hundred years. With this period of peace came 
prosperity and advancement in civilization. 

The Persians also did many things to bind together 
their vast empire. They made good roads — better than 
were ever built before. The most famous of these was 
the Royal Road, extending from Susa to Sardis, a distance 
of fifteen hundred miles. Along this famous highway 
there traveled great crowds of people, representing scores 
of surrounding tribes. Some of these people rode on tire- 
less Bokhara ponies, or horses, while others trudged along 
with donkeys or camels, laden with goods for some distant 
market. Government messengers, mounted on swift Ara- 
bian horses, often made the fifteen hundred miles, which is 
nearly half way across the United States, in six days. 
Ordinarily it took about three months to make the journey. 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 17 

An old Greek traveler marveled at the speed with which 
the royal messengers, changing horses and men at short 
intervals, could carry the mail. He thought it very 
remarkable that they never stopped for wind, rain, or the 
darkness of night. What would he say if he could see a 
present-day mail train like ^^The Twentieth Century 
Limited," flying from New York to Chicago, a thousand 
miles; in twenty hours? This train does not stop for rain 
or darkness, either. 

In this brief account of these Eastern peoples among 
whom was the '^ cradle of our civilization" we can see how 
far back in the history of the world are the roots of the 
American life of to-day. Although these five empires and 
nations declined and fell centuries ago, many of their 
achievements are still in existence. The architecture of 
the Egyptian, the agriculture and industries of the Chal- 
deans, the commercial genius of the Phoenicians, the 
religion of the Hebrews and the military and governing 
skill of the Persians, all have lent aid to us in the United 
States. They ^4it the torch" of civilization and passed it 
on to the nations farther west. Europe now becomes the 
scene of action. After these eastern nations had passed 
away, Greece became the center of the world's civilization 
to the study of which we shall now turn. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. What we know of the history of Egypt goes back four thousand 
years before Christ. It has been nearly two thousand years since Christ 
lived, making about six thousand years of recorded history. Represent 
on the blackboard these six thousand years by a Une, allowing one inch 
to each century. 

2. Mark ofif the time since the birth of Christ. Call that part of the 
line to the left B.C. (Before Christ), the part to the right A.D. (Anno Domini, 
or in the Year of our Lord, meaning since Christ was born). 



18 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

3. Mark off on the line the part covered since the *' New World " 
was known as such. 

4. The United States as a nation is less than one hundred and fifty 
years old. Mark off on the line the part covered by United States history. 

Now study your line carefully to see what it shows. 

5. Tell at least one thing for which we are indebted to each of the five 
early nations mentioned in this chapter. Show the connection, if you can, 
between their daily life and ours. Think carefully. 

6. What is meant by " The Cradle of Civilization " and " The Missionaries 
of Civilization " ? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Aegean, e-je'an Herodotus, he-rod'o-tws 

Americus Vespucius. a-mer'i-ciis Israel. iz'ra-6l 

v6s-pu'shi-us Karnak. kar'nak 

Bokhara, bo-ka'ra Lebanon, leb'd-non 

Cambyses. kam-bi'sez Nebuchadnezzar. n6b'lJ-kS,d-n6z'ar 

Chaldea. kal-de'd Palestine, pares-tin 

Cyrus, si'rits Phoenicia. fe-nish'I-d 

Darius, dd-ri'ws Susa. soo'sa 

Ethiopia. e'th6-6'pl-d Sardis. sar'dls 

Euphrates, u-fra'tez Tigris, tl'grls 

Gizeh. ge'z6 Waldseemiiller. valt'za-mul'er 
Hellespont, hgl'les-pont 



CHAPTER II 

THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 

^'Our laws, our literature, our religion, our art, have their roots in 
Greece.^' — Shelley. 

While the Persians were welding together a great empire 
in the East, the most interesting and most important nation 
of the ancient world was growing up in Greece and the 
surrounding islands. Here was the first home of culture in 
Europe. 



THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 



19 



Greece, **The Heir of the Orient." Greece has been 
called the ''heir of the Orient"; this means that Greece 
inherited the civilization of the eastern nations. She 
developed it to a still higher degree of perfection. Greece 




Greece in Ancient Times 

is a peninsula jutting out into the sea. She thus came 
into contact with Phoenician commerce and other currents 
of civilization coming from the East. The journey from 
Phoenicia to Greece was both short and easy. It was not 
difficult for sailors, even without the use of the mariner's 
compass, to find their way from island to island and 



20 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



finally to the mainland of Greece. For this reason, the 
islands of the Aegean Sea have often been called ''stepping 
stones." Greece thus faced the Orient and was the first 
European country to profit by the civilization of the East. 
She was the first to extend ''welcoming hands to the 
bearers of the world's best gifts." 

But the Greeks had also developed a most beautiful 
civilization of their own. They were not mere imitators. 
They were a bright, alert and quick people. They had 
good minds and lively imaginations and they lived in one 
of the most beautiful countries of the world. The sea, 
the rivers, the mountains and the lakes, combined with a 
transparent atmosphere and temperate climate to make 
living in Greece pleasant and even joyful. And so on 
Greek soil there grew up a freer and better civilization 
than any which had existed in the East. There was, as 
we shall see later, a greater freedom in religion, art, 

government, and modes of living 
than the Oriental nations ever 
saw. It is for this reason that 
the people of to-day admire 
Greek civilization so much and 
have profited so largely by it. 

Patriotism and Public Spirit. 
In the first place, we admire 
the Greeks for their fine patriot- 
ism and unselfish public spirit. 
The Greek was always ready 
to fight for his country and to 
sacrifice himself, if necessary, for the public welfare. We 
admire any man who has good principles and high ideals 




A Greek Warrior 



THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 21 

and is ready to fight for them when necessary. This the 
Greek did. 

The Wars with the Persians. There is abundant evi- 
dence of this patriotism and pubUc spirit in the wars 
which the Greeks waged against the Persians. When a 
nation is victorious in arms and has had a taste of con- 
quest, it is very difficult for it to stop fighting. After the 
Persians had conquered everybody in the East, they cast 
their eyes towards the West and fastened them upon 
Greece. 

Now, when one nation wishes to make war upon another, 
it is usually easy enough to find a cause for doing so. 
The Persian War began in this way. When the Persians 
were subduing Greek cities in Asia Minor, some years 
before, the Greeks of Athens — the Athenians — ■ sent 
assistance to their kinsmen. The result was the looting 
and burning of Sardis, the Persian capital. King Darius 
was terribly angry and it is said that he appointed a herald 
to cry out to him three times each day, ^^Sire, Remember 
the Athenians." And he did remember the Athenians. 

The First Invasion (492 B.C.). He gathered together a 
large army and fieet and sent them against Greece. They 
accomplished nothing, however, as the vessels were dashed 
to splinters in a terrific storm off Mount Athos. Darius 
began his preparations anew. Before starting out a second 
time, however, he sent messengers to the Greek cities 
asking them for '^ earth and water" in token of their 
submission to the power of Persia. The messengers 
received their earth and water from the Greeks in this 
way: they were cast into a pit at Athens and into a well 
at Sparta and told to help themselves to all the earth and 



22 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

water they wanted. The Persian king was insulted by 
this, of course, and so the fight was on. 

The Second Invasion (490 B.C.). The fleet and army 
went directly to Greece and the army was landed on the 
Plain of Marathon, near Mount Pentelicus and some 
twenty or twenty-five miles from Athens. Here, the 
Athenians went out to meet them and to engage them 
almost single-handed. Sparta had promised to give 
assistance and when the Persian hosts were sighted, 
Phidippides, a swift Athenian runner, was sent to that 
city over one hundred fifty miles of rugged road to notify 
the Spartans to hasten to the scene of the battle. The 
Spartans, however, declined to come, saying that it was 
against their law to start out upon a military expedition 
before the full of the moon. This probably was not the 
real reason for their refusal. It is likely that they were 
not particularly anxious to help the Athenians, their old 
rivals, out of a tight place. 

The Athenians, therefore, with about ten thousand men, 
were compelled to face the victorious Persians, with five or 
possibly ten times that number. 

The Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.). The Greek hearts 
were strong, however, and Miltiades, their leader, used 
splendid strategy. He marched his men out boldly and 
rapidly to encounter the enemy. When about an arrow's 
flight distant from the Persian ranks, the Greeks broke into 
a run and were upon the enemy in an instant. The 
Persians were surprised and confused and their arrows had 
little effect upon the heavy armor of the Greeks. The 
long spears of the Greeks, on the other hand, played havoc 
with the Persians. The battle was soon over, and six 



THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 



23 



thousand four hundred Persians lay dead upon the field. 
Only one hundred ninety-two Greeks were killed. Again 
Phidippides, although weary from fighting in the battle 




Battle of Marathon 



and possibly not yet wholly recovered from his long run to 
Sparta, was sent to convey the news to Athens, twenty- 
two miles away. He raced over the rough roads of the 
mountains, entered the city, and after shouting, ^'Ours is 
the victory," fell dead in his tracks. 

The Third Invasion (480 B.C.). Beaten, the Persians 
sailed away to their home in Asia, only to return again 



24 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

ten years later. In the meantime, the great King Darius 
had died and was succeeded by his son, Xerxes, a vain 
braggart with far less ability than his father. King 
Xerxes called together a council of the nobles and said to 
them, in a boasting way: ^'I propose to bridge the Helles- 
pont and march through Europe and set fire to Athens for 
burning Sardis. By reducing Attica and Greece, the sky 
will be the only boundary of Persia." He determined to 
hurl the whole strength of the great Persian empire against 
Greece, and spent four years in active preparation for the 
expedition. He collected an army of probably five hundred 
thousand men and a fleet of twelve hundred ships. Mind- 
ful of the disaster off Mount Athos, he caused a canal to 
be cut across the isthmus at this point for the passage of 
his ships. This took three years. Now, with his motley 
horde, gathered together from forty-six different tribes and 
nations, he was ready to advance. Side by side with his 
well-disciphned Persians were the dark-skinned Ethio- 
pians, clad in the hides of beasts, and savages from Central 
Asia. 

To transport this huge throng from Asia to Europe was 
no easy task. He caused pontoon bridges to be con- 
structed across the Hellespont — bridges of boats lashed 
together with planks. The rough sea broke the first of 
these bridges, whereupon Xerxes flew into a rage and 
caused the Hellespont to be flogged on account of its 
naughtiness. Shortly after, the troops passed in safety 
to the other side, with the Hellespont apparently on its 
good behavior. 

The Battle of Thermopylae. The outlook for the Greeks 
was gloomy enough, but they met the attack like men. 



THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 25 

This time the Spartans led and their King Leonidas, with 
three hundred Spartans and a few thousand alhes, met 
the advancing Persian host at Thermopylae. Here, the 
Persians attempted to enter central Greece through a 
narrow pass, twenty feet wide, which separated the moun- 
tains from the sea. Leonidas and his brave men disputed 
the passage and the battle raged for three days. The 
whole Persian army could not dislodge the stubborn 
Greeks in the narrow pass. Xerxes charged the pass time 
after time only to be repulsed. He even sent the flower of 
his army, the '^Ten Thousand Immortals," against Leoni- 
das, but all in vain. Finally, a traitor showed the Persians 
a secret path by which they crossed the mountains and 
attacked the Greeks in the rear. Leonidas, seeing that 
the day was lost, permitted his allies to seek safety in 
flight, but he and his noble three hundred stood their 
ground and fought until not one of them was left alive. 
A short time after the war, a monument was placed upon 
the hillock where these brave men made their last stand 
and this inscription was carved upon it: '^ Stranger, go 
and tell the Spartans that we lie here, having obeyed their 
word." Leonidas and his Spartans were defeated at 
Thermopylae in one sense, but in another they won a 
brilliant victory. The Spartan law would not permit 
retreat and Leonidas and his men, preferring death to 
dishonor, sacrificed themselves upon the altar of duty — 
^'examples for all time of courage and patriotic devotion." 
The Athenians Flee to the ** Wooden Walls." Athens, 
and in fact all of Greece, was now at the mercy of the 
Persian conquerors. Xerxes bore down upon Athens, 
bent upon taking his revenge. What should the Athenians 



26 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

do? Wliere should they turn? The priestess, presiding 
over the Oracle at Delphi, who was supposed to foretell 
future events, had prophesied that the Athenians would 
find safety behind ''wooden walls." Some, therefore, 
wished to hide behind the wooden palisades of a fortified 
hill called the Acropolis, and others to flee to the forests; 
but Theniistocles, a wise and able leader, persuaded them 
that the ''wooden walls" meant the sides of the ships. 
Accordingly, Athens was deserted and more than two 
hundred thousand people were carried in ships to Salamis 
and other islands in the vicinity. Xerxes and his army then 
proceeded to pillage and to destroy the abandoned city. 

The Sea-Fight at Salamis. The Greek fighting men, in 
the meantime, had gone on board their ships and were 
waiting an opportunity to attack the Persian fleet. The 
Greeks had nearly four hundred ships and the Persians 
twice as many. The ships, you know, were propelled by 
oars. Theniistocles saw that it would be to his advantage 
to fight the battle in a narrow place where all of the 
Persian ships could not be used at one time. So he 
managed to bring on the attack in the narrow strait which 
separates the island of Salamis from the mainland. 

In addition to the immense size of the squadron, Xerxes 
had famous sailors from among the Phoenicians and 
Egyptians. He was, therefore, supremely confident of 
victory; and, in order that he might enjoy the battle to 
the fullest extent, he caused a golden throne to be built on 
the hillside from which he could view the spectacle. But it 
is probable that the great king did not especially enjoy the 
entertainment. The battle lasted from morning until night 
and the Persian fleet was utterly routed and one half of it 



THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 



27 



destroyed. The victorious Athenians then returned to 
their plundered city and repaired the damage done by the 
invaders. The poet, Byron, who was always an ardent 




Battle of Salamis 

admirer of Greek life and character, wrote the following 
lines about this great sea fight: 

^'A King sat on the rocky brow 
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; 
And ships by thousands lay below, 
And men in nations, — all were his. 
He counted them at break of day, 
And when the sun set, where were they?" 



28 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



Final Defeat for the Persians. One more battle and 
the Persian Wars were over. The stubborn valor of the 
Spartans and the brilhant, dashing skill of the Athenians 
routed another immense Persian army near Plataea, in 
Central Greece. It is said that out of two hundred and 




Xerxes Watching the Battle of Salamis 

sixty thousand Persians engaged in this battle, only three 
thousand got back to their homes in Asia. The Greeks 
lost about one hundred and fifty men. The war was over. 
The small flying remnant of the Persians was glad enough 
to escape to Asia, and no Persian army ever again invaded 
Greece. 

The Real Result of the Persian Wars. Now, what did 
this victory mean? It meant much to Greece, of course, 
but vastly more to the civilized world, and it means much 
to us. In a word, it meant that the free and elevating 



THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 29 

civilization of Greece was to dominate Europe, instead of 
the narrow and oppressive spirit of Persia. Two different 
kinds of civilization were contending at Marathon and the 
better kind fortunately prevailed. We in America are 
now following Greek rather than Persian ideals. 

The victory also made Greece a world power and gave 
her confidence in her own strength and character. It also 
inspired her to great things in art and literature during 
the "Golden Age" of Greek history, which you will read 
about in a later chapter. In short, the Greeks and, more 
particularly, the Athenians found themselves during the wars 
with Persia. As one of their historians said at a later 
time: ''The Athenians are the only people who succeed 
to the full extent of their hope, because they throw them- 
selves without reserve into whatever they resolve to do." 
Every educated Greek felt that he was a useful and neces- 
sary part of the state. 

When the Athenian boys became eighteen years of age 
they took the following oath: 

"We will never bring disgrace to this, our City, by any 
act of dishonesty or cowardice, nor ever desert our suffering 
comrades in the ranks. We will fight for the ideals and 
sacred things of the City, both alone and with many; 
we will revere and obey the City's laws and do our best 
to incite a like respect and reverence in those above us 
who are prone to annul or to set them at naught; we will 
strive unceasingly to quicken the public's sense of civic 
duty. Thus in all these ways we will transmit this City 
not only not less but greater, better and more beautiful 
than it was transmitted to us." 

This oath of citizenship, taken by the young men of 



30 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Athens, cannot be repeated too often and should be known 
by heart by every American citizen of to-day. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Compare Greece with Egypt as to industries and character of people. 
Compare Greece with Chaldea. 

2. Why did you want the Greeks to win in the struggle with Persia? 

3. How do you account for the success of the Greeks? 

4. What does the map in this chapter show you? 

PHONOUNCING LIST 

AcropoUs. d-kr6p'6-lls Phidippides. fl-dlp'i-dez 

Athens. ath'6nz Platea. pld-te'd 

Athos. ath'6s Salamis. sal'd-mls 

Attica. at'I-kd Sparta, spar'td 

Leonidas. le-5n'I-dds Themistocles. the-mis'to-klez 

Marathon. mar'd-th6n Thermopylae. ther-mop'I-le 

Miltiades. mll-ti'd-dez Xerxes, zurk'zez 
Pentelicus. p6n-t6ri-ktis 



CHAPTER III 
THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 

The Greeks won many laurels on the battle-field, but 
they won still greater victories in the field of literature. 
There are some immortal names in the list of Greek writers. 
Homer's is one of these. He made poems about the siege 
of Troy. Do you remember the story? The son of 
Priam, king of Troy, came to Greece, once upon a time, 
and carried away Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of 
Sparta. Helen was the most beautiful woman in all 
Greece and was greatly beloved by her people. The 
Greeks, therefore, looked upon this act as a national insult 



THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 



31 




Homer 



32 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

and gathered together from all quarters to recover Helen 
and to punish the Trojans. They were a famous body of 
men. Agamemnon, 'Hhe king of men/' and brother of 
Menelaus, was in supreme command. The terrible 
Achilles, the most powerful single-handed fighter among 
the Greeks, was also there, and so was Odysseus, the 
most cunning, shrewd, and crafty of them all. They 
assaulted the walls of Troy for ten years without avail, 
and finally captured the city by means of the famous 
stratagem of the ^'wooden horse." 

Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. The poems of Homer are 
the ^' Iliad" and the ''Odyssey." The Iliad tells the story 
of the last part of the ten years' siege of Troy and portrays 
the terrible wrath of Achilles against his chief, Agamemnon. 
The Odyssey tells of the wanderings and adventures of 
Odysseus, or Ulysses, as he is sometimes called, while on 
his way back from Troy to his home in the island of 
Ithaca. He had many mishaps. On one occasion, he and 
his men were driven by a storm upon a land where the 
Cyclops dwelt. These Cyclops were a race of savage 
giants with one eye in the center of the forehead. Their 
king was the terrible man-eating Polyphemus. When he 
discovered the ship-wrecked strangers within his domain, 
he took them home with him to his cave in the hillside. 
In this cave he also kept his sheep. Polyphemus was a 
cannibal and immediately set about devouring the com- 
rades of Odysseus. After he had made away with six of 
them, Odysseus gave him what wine he had left in his 
sacks and made him drunk. He then destroyed the single 
eye of the giant, making him totally blind. Odysseus and 
his companions then tried to ride out of the cave on the 



THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 



33 




Ulysses and Polyphemus 



backs of the sheep, but Polyphemus discovered their trick 
by feeHng along the sheep's backs as they went out and 
threw the men into the cave with a thud. Later they 
swung themselves under 
the huge bodies of the 
sheep and thus rode out 
of the cave to safety. 
After getting into the 
open air, they lost no time 
in putting out to sea. As 
they pushed away from 
the shore, however, they 
could not resist the temp- 
tation of hurling back a derisive shout to old Polyphemus, 
who stood disconsolate some little distance away. The 
great giant was so angered by this that he snatched off 
the top of a nearby mountain and hurled it with tremen- 
dous force in the direction from which the voices came; but 
he threw too far. The huge mass went over the boat and 
struck in the sea on the other side. The Greeks were 
awed into silence and the waves from the great mass of 
earth and stone slowly washed them back to the shore — 
almost to the very feet of blind Polyphemus. Needless to 
say Odysseus and his brave men now kept very quiet until 
Polyphemus had wandered off to care for his sheep. 

While the ''Iliad" is a story of war, the '^ Odyssey" is 
a story of peace, or rather of adventure. Homer appar- 
ently gets his hero into trouble in order that he may show 
his craft and cunning in getting out. And so it goes, 
year after year. Finally, after twenty years of wandering, 
Odysseus reaches his home in the disguise of a beggar. 



34 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



Many old friends fail to recognize him but his faithful dog, 
Argus, recognizes his master instantly and dies after giving 
him a most cordial welcome home. His wife, Penelope, 
was also there to greet him. She had remained faithful to 




Homer Chanting His Poems 

The traveling bard or minstrel sat down by the wayside or on the street corner 
and recited his odes to the tune of a lyre. People gathered, listened for a time 
and then went on their way. 



him during all these years, although besieged by more 
than one hundred suitors who told her that the Greeks 
who had gone to Troy were all dead many years ago. 

Although these poems were composed a thousand years 
before the Christian Era, they are considered by many to 
be the finest poems ever written. They were not put into 



THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 35 

writing for many hundreds of years after their composition. 
In fact, at the time of Homer, the art of writing was not 
known to the Greeks. Homer was probably one of the 
traveUng bards or minstrels of the time, who went about 
reciting poetry at festivals and meetings of various kinds. 
In this way the poems were handed down for several 
centuries by word of mouth. After being reduced to 
writing, they were read by the fireside and studied in the 
schools. The Greeks often called Homer "the poet/^ on 
account of the great esteem in which they held him. 

Sophocles. The Greeks had another kind of poetry, 
known as the dramatic. This was intended to be acted 
upon the stage. The greatest of the dramatic poets was 
Sophocles, who was born near Athens about 495 B.C. He 
lived to be ninety years old and wrote more than one 
hundred plays. He was always fond of his native town 
and speaks of it in one of his plays as the place ''where the 
nightingale haunts the green glades, where narcissus and 
golden crocus bloom, where the springs of clear water 
never fail." To the Athenians he seemed, "a man loved 
by the gods," and he was worshiped by them as a hero 
after his death. 

The production of a great play in the city of Athens 
must have been a very beautiful and inspiring spectacle. 
The theater was semi-circular in shape with seats cut into 
the solid rock of the hillside. It was open to the sky and 
had no scenery aside from the rugged mountains and the 
blue sea. In this vast arena, thirty thousand people often 
sat from morning until night, listening to the sublime lines 
of the old Greek tragedies, and often moved to tears. 
Pericles, one of the wisest rulers of Athens, gave the people 



36 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



free admission to the theater, because he looked upon it 
as a means of education, rather than of entertainment. 

In the United States we have several theaters built upon 
the Greek plan though not quite so large. There is one at 




The Theater of Dionysus at Athens 

The famous theater is here represented in its best days with the audience upon 
the benches and the actors on the stage. The mountains are plainly visible 
in the distance through the clear, pure air. 

the University of California, another at the University of 
the City of New York. There are also others. 

Prose Writers: Herodotus. Let us now turn for a 
moment to the prose writers. The first great writer of 
Greek prose was Herodotus, known as ^Hhe father of his- 
tory." He was a Greek of Asia Minor, born in 484 B.C. 
which was nearly two thousand years before America, 



THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 



37 



or the '^New Part" of the world, was discovered. He was 
an intimate friend of the dramatic poet, Sophocles. His 
main work is a history of the Persian Wars. From this 
history we gather almost all that we know about these 




Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y. 

Greek Theater at University of California 

Students of the University of California sit in this theater, as the Athenians 
did in ancient times, and enjoy plays of various kinds. The uniform climate 
makes this possible. 



great conflicts. Before writing his history, he traveled 
over almost the entire civilized world, from Babylon to 
Italy. His book is a book of travel, almost as much as 
of history. It abounds in anecdotes and stories about 
people and places and is intensely interesting reading. 



38 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Thucydides. The greatest Greek historian, however, 
was Thucydides, born about 471 B.C. His work is not so 
gossipy and entertaining as that of Herodotus but it is 
vastly more reUable and accurate. He tells the story of 
the great war between Sparta and Athens, usually called 
the Peloponnesian War, which began in 431 and lasted for 
twenty-seven years. He gives us a notable description 
of the plague or ''Black Death," which broke out in 
Athens after the people from the country had crowded 
within the walls of the city. Another part of his history 
is the ''Funeral Oration," a sort of Memorial Day address 
delivered by Pericles in honor of those who fell during the 
first year of the war. 

Thucydides was a patriotic and public-spirited Athe- 
nian, but he was rather harshly treated by his fellow 
citizens. In the early part of the war, while he was in 
command of the fleets, a city was taken which it was 
thought he should have protected. He was charged with 
using the fleet to protect his own gold mines instead of 
the city which fell. It now appears that he was innocent 
of the charge, yet he was removed from his command. 
We are not certain that he was banished from Athens, yet 
he may have been. It is certain that he was absent from 
his native city for tw^enty years after this event and that 
during this time he was traveling and studying prepara- 
tory to writing his great history. He was proud of his 
book when finished and said: "My history has been 
composed, not as the exploit of an hour, but as a posses- 
sion of all time." He was right. His history was never 
more valuable than it is to-day. Many modern historians 
think it a model of its kind in many respects. 



THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 39 

Demosthenes. ''Among no other people has pubHc 
speaking been so important and so effective." There were 
two reasons for this. In the first place, a man who wished 
to enter public life was obhged to be a pubhc speaker. 
Athens was governed by the great assembly which con- 
sisted of all male citizens over eighteen years of age. The 
men who addressed the assembly stood upon a high rock 
or throne, and thousands listened to them. On the hill- 
sides of rainless Greece the air is so rare that the human 
voice carries easily for even more than a half mile, making 
it possible to address thousands of people through the ear 
as we now address them by our newspapers through the 
eye. The orator had far more influence in Greece than he 
has in such modern countries as England and the United 
States. Man of the present day is influenced by what 
he reads, probably more than by what he hears. 

In the second place, a man in a lawsuit in Athens was 
compelled to plead his own case. He had to speak for 
himself. He could not hire a lawyer to do the talking for 
him, as we do. He could, however, hire the lawyer to 
write a speech for him to be delivered by himself. This 
was often done, so that, taking it all in all, the gift of 
public speaking was more valuable in Greece than in any 
other country before or since. 

Greece had many fine orators, but Demosthenes was by 
far the greatest of them all. He was also the ''greatest 
master of Greek prose," and some think him the greatest 
orator the world has ever produced. When a boy, he 
seemed to have none of the qualifications of the orator or 
statesman. He was shy and retiring in disposition, his 
voice was weak, and his body frail and awkward. When 



40 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



he was quite young, his father, a wealthy manufacturer, 
died and left a large amount of property, which was 
promptly stolen by the guardian of the young Demos- 
thenes. 

The boy determined then and there to study oratory in 
order to be able to bring the thief to justice. This he did 
with marked success, but he had a very hard time in 
becoming a good public speaker. He worked industriously. 
He put pebbles in his mouth in order to increase the 
distinctness of his speech and he practiced before the 

roaring waves of the sea. In 
order to improve his style he 
wrote out the history of Thu- 
cydides eight times; and yet 
notwithstanding all of this, he 
met defeat after defeat. The 
Athenian audiences were accus- 
tomed to good speaking and 
were very critical, so they 
howled him down and he 
went away in sorrow to mope 
by the seashore. But he re- 
turned later and moved that 
same audience to anger, to 
laughter, and to tears. 
Demosthenes was not only a great orator, but a patriotic 
statesman, as well. Athens had a free government — a 
government by the people — and Demosthenes saw that 
Philip, the king of Macedonia, was attempting to bring 
all Greece under his despotic sway. He then became the 
champion of Greek freedom, just as Patrick Henry and 




Demosthenes at the Seaside 



THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 41 

James Otis at a later time became the champions of 
American freedom. He delivered twelve stirring, scathing 
and thrilUng speeches, known as the ^'PhiHppics," in which 
he exposed the schemes of Philip and urged the Athenians 
to take the lead in the stand for Greek independence. 
Athens, he said, was the natural leader of Greece, but she 
must gain the confidence of the Greeks by being worthy 
of it. He himself took his place as a common soldier in 
the ranks in the war that followed. 

Although Philip won the battle and gained control of all 
Greece, the Athenians were not unmindful of the great debt 
which they owed to Demosthenes, and it was proposed 
that he be given a golden wreath of honor by the state. 
A jealous rival, Aeschines, raised a legal objection and the 
case came to trial. Demosthenes appeared in his own 
defense. Aeschines had accused him of a desire to become 
king and to destroy the liberties of Athens. Demosthenes 
made reply in the greatest speech which he ever dehvered 
— possibly the greatest speech ever delivered by any one. 
It is called the ^^ Oration on the Crown," and in it he 
reviewed the acts and motives of his whole life. He won 
his case. Aeschines was crushed and immediately de- 
parted from Athens. 

Demosthenes fell a martyr to his lost cause. Eang 
Philip took possession of Athens, abolished the government 
by the people, and demanded that certain Athenian leaders, 
who had opposed his plans be surrendered into his hands. 
Demosthenes, of course, was one of these. Rather than 
place himself in the power of the Macedonian king, 
Demosthenes took his own life by poison. ''Had but the 
strength of thy arm, Demosthenes, equalled thy spirit,'' 



42 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

said a man of the time, ^^ never would Greece have sunk 
under the foreign yoke." 

Aristotle. The Greeks had still another kind of prose 
literature, called philosophy. The term philosophy in- 
cluded all kinds of prose writing with the exception of 
history and oratory. The greatest Greek philosopher, and 
one of the greatest thinkers of all time, was Aristotle. 
He was born about 384 b.c, not far from Mount Athos, 
where the Persian fleet was destroyed. His father was a 
physician, and the young lad was sent to Athens for his 
education. Here he was placed in the school of the 
eminent teacher and philosopher, Plato. He made such 
rapid progress that the master called him '^the mind of 
the school." 

Aristotle was a cool, calculating thinker and much 
given to the study of facts. He studied almost everything 
— plants, animals, logic, grammar, physics, mathematics, 
astronomy, government, history, — and wrote very exten- 
sively. He was an ardent seeker after the truth and 
loved it for its own sake. He used to say, ^' Plato and 
truth are both dear to me, but it is a sacred duty to 
prefer truth." 

In his writings on politics, he tells us what, in his 
opinion, an ideal state ought to be. It should contain, he 
says, twenty thousand inhabitants, all educated by the 
state. Each man should be a land-holder of moderate 
means and each one should have a share in the govern- 
ment. The free-man should give his whole time to the 
government and military affairs, and there should be 
slaves to do all the ordinary work. He would prohibit 
the taking of interest for the use of money. It is plain 



THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 43 

that Aristotle had many admirable features in his ideal state, 
but some of them we should object to at the present time. 

It is difficult to estimate the influence of a man like 
Aristotle, but it is certainly true that for hundreds of 
years his writings dominated the thinking world. The 
scholars of the Middle Ages looked upon him as an author- 
ity and he has influenced modern thought more than any 
other man of the ancient world. In his writings, he 
summed up the best thought of all preceding ages and, 
adding his own contributions to it, he handed it down to 
later times. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Compare the Greek theaters with ours as to: 

a. Plan of building. 

b. Seating capacity. 

c. Length of play. 

d. Kind of play given. 

e. Size of audience. 

2. Why is oratory not so necessary for leadership now as it was in 
Demosthenes' time? Consider well in answering this question, the means 
of reaching the people now and then. The Greek orator stood upon a 
high platform, under a clear sky, and reached, with his voice, thousands of 
people. Have we a better way of reaching the people? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Achilles. d-kll'Iez Odysseus, o-dls'us 

Aeschines. 6s'ki-nez Odyssey. 6d'i-sl 

Agamemnon. ag-a-m6m'n6n Peloponnesian. pero-po-ne'shan 

Aristotle. ar'Is-tot"! Penelope, pe-nero-pe 

Babylon. bab'I-lon Pericles. p6r'i-klez 

Cyclops. sl'kl6ps Plato, pla'to 

Demosthenes, de-mos'the-nez Polyphemus, pol'i-fe'mws 

Hiad. iri-ad Priam. pri'Sm 

Ithaca. Ith'd-ka Sophocles, sof'o-klez 

Macedonia, mas'e-do'ni-d Thucydides. thu-sld'l-dez 

Menelaus. mgn'e-la'ws Ulysses, u-lis'ez 



44 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



CHAPTER IV 



THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 



Although, as you know from reading the last chapter, 
the books written by the Greeks are very important, the 
buildings, statues, and paintings which they created are 
equally important. It has been well said of Greece that 




The Acropolis in its Best Days 

''her true service to mankind and her imperishable glory 
lie in her literature, her philosophy and her art." 

The Acropolis. The center of Greek art and architecture 
was Athens, and the center of Athens was the Acropolis, or 
the large flat-topped rock upon which the old city was 



THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 45 

built, so that it could be easily defended from savage 
enemies. A stairway of sixty marble steps was later built 
leading up to the top of this famous rock. Here is to be 
found in ruins the most beautiful collection of buildings 
ever constructed. From them we can read again much of 
the story of the Greeks. 

Greek Architecture. The visitor to the Acropolis might 
see three different kinds or orders of architecture, distin- 
guished from each other by means of the columns which 
were used. The Doric column is short and stout, without 
a base and without ornament of any kind. It is the 
simplest and strongest of the three orders. The Ionic 
column is more slender and has some ornamentation. It 
always has tw^o spiral rolls or whorls, as they are called, at 
the top. The Corinthian column is the most slender and 
most highly ornamented of all. The capital, or top, is 
made to represent the leaves of a plant. 

The Parthenon. The building which always calls out 
the greatest admiration of the visitor to Athens is the 
Parthenon. This temple was probably the most beautiful 
building ever constructed. It was built of white marble, 
taken from the quarries of Mount Pentelicus, which were 
owned by the state. Certain parts of the building were 
painted in harmonious colors and the faces of the statues 
were sometimes tinted in a life-like manner. A large part 
of the pleasing effect of the building was due to the ab- 
sence of straight lines. Practically all of the lines were 
slightly curved. '^ There is not in the entire temple a straight 
line of any considerable length J ^ Although the curves are 
all so slight that in most cases they cannot be detected by 
the naked eye, they relieve the building of that stiffness 



46 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



which results from the use of straight hues. The Parthe- 
non illustrates the ^' chief features of Greek architecture — 
simplicity, harmony and refinement, the union of strength 
and beauty." After gracing the hill-top for more than 
two thousand years, the Parthenon was wrecked in the 
seventeenth century. During a war it was used as a powder 
house, and a shell from the enemy's gun caused an explo- 




The Parthenon in the Time of Pericles 



sion. Parts of it now stand simply as a noble ruin. One 
can easily see, however, traces of its former beauty and 
can realize that ^'it is the most perfect piece of architec- 
ture ever created by human hands." 

Phidias. The beautifully sculptured decorations of the 
Parthenon made up a large part of its beauty and it seems 
very fortunate that the world's greatest sculptor was pres- 
ent in Athens to take charge of the world's most artistic 
building. Phidias, the greatest sculptor of all time. 



THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 47 




Phidias at Work on the Parthenon 



48 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



planned the ornamentation of the Parthenon and did a 
part of the work with his own hands. The most noted 

piece of statuary in or about 
the building was the statue of 
Athena, placed on the inside. 
This statue was thirty-four feet 
in height; its core was made of 
wood, the visible parts of the 
body were made of ivory, the 
hair and draperies of gold, and 
the eyes of precious stones. It 
was paid for out of the booty 
taken by the Athenians at the 
battle of Salamis. Many of the 
pieces of statuary taken from the 
Parthenon after its destruction 
are now in the British Museum in 
London. 

The masterpiece of Phidias, 
however, was the colossal statue 
of the god Zeus, at Olympia. 
This was of tremendous size and 
was considered one of the "Seven 
wonders of the world." The Greeks considered it a calamity 
to die without seeing it. ^'See Zeus and die" was a common 
saying among them. 

Statues of Athletes. Greek sculptors were fond of carv- 
ing statues of athletes and of representing scenes from 
great athletic contests, like the Olympic games. The 
Greeks were a well developed race, renowned for grace and 
manly beauty, and the sculptors liked to reproduce these 




Statue of the Goddess 
Athena 

In her right hand she holds a 
statue of the Winged Vic- 
tory, six feet high, and her 
left rests on a shield. 



THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 



49 





traits in marble. One of the best statues of this kind is 

the Discobolus, or Disc-thrower of Myron. The athlete 

is represented in the act of summoning all his strength 

to give the discus a tremendous 

hurl. The muscles are tense, the 

body beautifully poised, and one 

almost expects to see the discus 

sail through space for a distance 

of one hundred and fifty feet. We 

almost wonder why he does 

not throw. 

Painting. In painting, the 
Greeks were not so famous 



Statue of Zeus 

Zeus was the chief of the Greek 
gods. 

as they were in sculpture, 
and not many samples of 
their work have come down 
to us. Some of the Greek 
painters, however, had repu- 
tations for doing wonderful 
things. It was said that 
Zeuxis painted a bunch of 
grapes which the birds tried 
to eat, and that Apelles 
painted a horse which looked 
so lifelike that real horses 
saluted it with a neigh. 



The Discobolus or Disc-throweh 



50 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Compare the largest building you know with the Parthenon. 

2. Do you know any modern building that resembles the Parthenon? 
Describe it. 

3. Do you know any buildings with Ionic, Doric, or Corinthian columns? 

4. Write a letter to an art company asking for illustrated catalogs. You 
will probably find therein pictures of the Frieze of the Parthenon. The 
Frieze is an ornamental band on the halls or under the eaves. What is the 
subject matter of the Frieze? 

5. Why did the Greek sculptors so often choose athletes and athletic 
games as subjects? Keep this question in mind as you read the next 
chapter. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Apelles. d-p6l'ez Myron, mi'ron 

Athena, d-the'nd Olympia. 6 \im'pl-d 

Corinthian, ko-rln'thi-dn Parthenon, par'the-non 

Discobolus, dis-kob'o-lws Phidias, fld'i-as 

Doric. dor'Ik Zeus, zus 

Ionic. i-6n'Ik Zeuxis. zuk's!s 



CHAPTER V 

GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 

In order to appreciate still more fully what the Greeks 
did for us, it will be necessary to see how Greek boys and 
men were educated and what their ideals of life were. 
Unfortunately, the position of woman among the ancient 
Greeks was not high. This fact is a blot upon an other- 
wise beautiful civilization. The boys were very carefully 
educated, but almost no attention was paid to the girls. 
The Spartan boy was educated for the army. His body 
was well trained, but his mind was not. The Athenians 



GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 51 

had a better kind of education. They gave their boys a 
good physical and athletic training, but they trained their 
minds as well. The Athenian boy studied reading, writ- 
ing, arithmetic, geometry, drawing, and music. The writ- 
ings of the poet Homer and of the lawyer, Solon, were 
studied, but foreign languages were looked upon with dis- 
dain. The boy was also taught to play upon the harp 
and flute, and to sing and to recite poems. The Greeks 
thought that music had a good moral effect upon the 
nature of the boy, and they were probably right. 

The school hours were very much longer than ours. 
The schools opened at sunrise and closed at sunset. The 
teachers did not seem to believe in spoiling the child by 
sparing the rod, as corporal punishment was inflicted for 
very slight offenses. The teachers also had their troubles, 
you may be sure. Plato speaks of some of his pupils 
as sharp, witty, insubordinate, and unmanageable little 
animals. 

While there are many examples of treachery and dis- 
•honesty in Greek life, as there are in the life of every 
nation, as a rule Greek ideals were high. The Greek loved 
a good manly contest, had a taste for the beautiful, and 
was inclined to be temperate and moderate in all things. 
He avoided extremes and exercised a splendid self-control. 
Let us glance for a moment at a few of the finest types of 
manhood produced by the life and education of Greece. 

Aristides is a ''man whose character is a shining light 
in the ancient world." During the Persian Wars, he was 
banished from Athens through no fault of his own. Some 
of his fellow citizens voted against him because they were 
tired of hearing him called ''Aristides the just." He was 



52 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



of a forgiving disposition, however, and when his country- 
needed him in time of war, he returned and insisted upon 
fighting for Greek Uberty. He fought nobly against the 
Persians, both at Salamis and Plataea. 

Socrates is one of the finest characters of ancient Greece. 
'^True wisdom," said Socrates, '^is to know what is good 
and to do what is right." He was a searcher after the 




The Physical Education of the Greek Youth 

The Athenians beheved in having a sound mind in a sound body. Their 
young men were fond of running, wresthng, throwing the discus, and other 
athletic sports. 



truth and thought more deeply into the affairs of life than 
other men. He had a very high idea of God and refused 
to worship the gods which the Greeks had made of stone 
and bronze. As a result, he was tried on a charge of intro- 
ducing strange gods and of corrupting the youth of Athens. 
He was convicted and sentenced to drink the fatal cup of 
hemlock, which he did with the utmost composure, while 



GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 



discoursing upon the immortality of the soul. The Athe- 
nians of the time were not wise enough to understand his 
message. 

Pericles. Pericles was a man of action. He was what 
we would call, in these days, a man of initiative. He 
could do things and get results without being told exactly 
how they should be done. He was somewhat hke Lieu- 




The Mental Education of the Greek Youth 

The young Athenian received instruction from some of the greatest men in 
Greece, such as Plato and Aristotle. 

tenant Rowan, of the United States army, who carried the 
message from President McKinley to General Garcia, with- 
out being told where Garcia was. He did not know at 
the time, but he found out. Pericles was '^ first in war 
and first in peace." He ruled Athens during her most 
brilliant period, but he ruled her because, by his eloquence 
and common sense, he was able to persuade the Athenian 
assembly to adopt his plans. He adorned Athens and the 



54 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



Acropolis by erecting beautiful public buildings and creat- 
ing fine works of art. He also built fortifications and other 
defenses for the city. As an orator, Pericles was spoken of 




Age of Pericles 

A Greek orator is standing on the rostrum and attempting to persuade the 
people to adopt his views. At this time the Greeks were not governed by 
a king but by a pubhc assembly. 

as the Zeus of Athens, '' rolhng fateful thunders from his 
tongue." He died of the plague in Athens in 429 B.C., 
while defending his native city against the attacks of 
Sparta, the rival city in Greece. 



GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 



55 




Pericles 

Pericles was for a time the first citizen of Athens. He beautified the city with 
public buildings, encouraged its artists and literary men and provided for its 
defense. 



56 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



Solon was a famous lawyer. While ruler of Athens, he 
drew up a splendid constitution and body of laws and suc- 
ceeded in getting them adopted. He was the greatest 
lawyer among the Greeks. He made his laws binding for 
a hundred years and compelled all citizens to take an oath 
to obey them. But, like many modern officials, he was 

pestered so much by 
those who wished 
to have the laws 
changed, that he 
went away on a 
visit of ten years 
to Egypt, in order 
to escape his tor- 
mentors. When he 
returned, he saw 
his mistake. His 
laws were not be- 
ing enforced, as 
there was no one 
in Athens to enforce them, and the government had fallen 
into confusion — almost into anarchy. We, in the United 
States, sometimes enact good laws and apparently expect 
them to enforce themselves — as much a mistake now as 
in Solon's time. 

We have read the stories of several Greeks who became 
great. And we have learned that the Greeks had the right 
to think for themselves and to act as they thought right. 
Each of these men was great because he lived up to a noble 
ideal. Aristides had a strong sense of justice and fairness; 
Socrates and Aristotle had visions of higher truth which 




Diogenes in His Tub 



GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 57 

other men did not have; Pericles had a lofty and prac- 
tical patriotism; Phidias had a great religious purpose in 
his work; Solon had a strong sense of right and wrong, 
and Demosthenes prized the liberty of Athens. The latter 
was very bold in speaking his sentiments. It was his prac- 
tice ^Ho hew to the line and let the chips fall where they 
would." Now, while there were black sheep in the Greek 
flock, there were very many of the other kind — as white 
as the marble of their own Pentelicus. An old cynic phi- 
losopher, named Diogenes, lived in a tub and was in the 
habit of going about the streets of Athens at noonday 
with a lantern in his hand, looking for an honest man. Do 
you think there was anything wrong with his lantern or 
with his eyes? 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Are the ideals for which these fine old Greeks stood, worth holding 
out as ideals to the boys and girls of our day? 

2. Pericles was an advocate of the " City beautiful." How could the 
city or town in which you Uve be made more beautiful? Would it be nec- 
essary to build Parthenons and to pay thousands of dollars to bring this 
about? 

3. Which one of these old Greeks do you admire most? Why? 

4. Name four famous Greeks and write a one-word picture of each. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Aristides. ar'Is-ti'dez Socrates. s6k'rd-tez 

Diogenes. dl-6j'e-nez Solon. So'lon 

Garcia, gar-se'a 



58 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



CHAPTER VI 
SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 

"With Alexander, the stage of Greek influence spreads across the 
world.'' — Mahaffy. 

We should now fix it firmly in our minds that Greek 
civihzation and Greek learning were not confined to that 
small country now called Greece. In the course of time 
Greek culture spread over the entire ancient world. Like 
thistledown its seeds were wafted everywhere. 

Greek Colonies. The spread of Greek civihzation was 
brought about, in part, by the founding of colonies. There 
were three reasons why the Greeks founded colonies. In 
the first place, the population of the country had increased 
and an overflow took place. There was a '4and hunger" 
among the Greeks and also a spirit of adventure. Greece 
was a small country, with a rugged and broken surface 
and a soil which was not very fertile. In the second place, 
some of the Greeks were not happy under the oppression 
of the home government and, like the Pilgrim Fathers, they 
sought freedom in other lands. Again, many of the col- 
onies were due to the growth of commerce. After the 
decline of the Phoenicians, the Greeks became the leading 
commercial nation of the world. Colonies and commerce 
usually go hand in hand. 

These colonies were free cities, not under the control of 
the mother country. They were bound to the mother city 
only by ties of sentiment and by a common rehgion and 



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SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 59 

language. When colonists were about to set out to make 
homes in a new land, they asked the approval of the 
Delphic Oracle, and also took with them the sacred fire 
from the altar of the mother city. From this sacred spark 
a fire was kindled upon the hearth of the new city. 

If you will look at the map, you will see that the Greeks 
founded colonies over a very wide area — from the eastern 
shores of the Black Sea on the east to Spain on the west, 
and from Russia on the north to the Sahara Desert on the 
south. In addition to this, Alexander the Great, the 
famous conqueror, founded Greek cities in the East all 
over the old Persian Empire and even beyond its bound- 
aries. 

Many of these colonies later became great cities, but 
the important fact about the whole matter is this, wherever 
a Greek colony was established, it became a center of 
Greek civilization. ^'It bore the blossoms and fruit of 
Greek culture." The people spoke the Greek language, 
sang the Greek songs, worshiped the Greek gods, and 
lived the Greek life of freedom. 

Alexander the Great did more than any other one man 
to spread the civilization of Greece. He is an interesting 
and in most ways an attractive figure in history. He was 
the son of that Philip, king of Macedon, against whom 
Demosthenes hurled his powerful ^'Philippics." His mother 
was a semi-barbaric princess from a wild tribe. Alexander 
was a peculiar combination. He had the strong will and 
the mihtary ability of his father, coupled with the warm 
sympathy and the fiery temper of his mother. From his 
teacher, the famous Aristotle, he got his love of Greek 
culture, and from Homer, his favorite author, he obtained 



60 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

his love of heroic warfare. He knew the ^'Ihad" by heart 
and looked upon Achilles as his ideal warrior. 

At the age of twelve, he conquered and tamed the fiery 
steed, Bucephalus; at eighteen, he led his father's troops 
in battle; and at twenty, he succeeded his father on the 
throne. At this time, he was a strong, vigorous, hand- 
some, and well-educated young man. He was also a very 
likable person. 

During his father's campaigns, it is said that Alexander 
frequently murmured because he feared there would be 
no worlds for him to conquer. Now at his father's death 
(336 B.C.) his great opportunity came and he determined 
to punish the East for the injuries and insults of the 
Persian Wars. Before starting out, it was necessary to 
set things in order in Greece, where certain cities had re- 
volted against his rule. Thebes was one of these, and to 
show that he meant business and would not be trifled with, 
he destroyed every house in the city, except that of the 
poet Pindar, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. 

He then started out upon his eastern conquest — one of 
the most remarkable expeditions in the world's history. 
He halted at the plains of Troy to do homage at the 
grave of Achilles, his ideal warrior. He then passed on to 
Gordium, where he cut the '^Gordian Knot." Passing 
through Tarsus, which centuries later was the home of the 
Apostle Paul, he came to Tyre, the famous city of Phoe- 
nicia, and demanded its surrender. The Tyrians refused 
his demand and for seven months held out nobly. Tyre 
was situated on an island about a half-mile from the main- 
land, and Alexander proceeded to build a wall or causeway, 
two hundred feet wide, from the mainland out to the island. 



SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 



61 




Alexander the Great 

The young and handsome conqueror of the East is recognized as one of the 
world's greatest military geniuses. While not an admirable man in every 
respect he did much to spread Greek civilization. 



62 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



He proceeded vigorously. He drove piles and dumped in 
stones, dirt, logs, and trees to fill up the space. While 




Defeat of Darius by Alexander 

It was Alexander's ambition to conquer the world and as the Persian Empire 
was still the chief power in Asia, it was this empire that he set out to conquer. 
A third Darius was now ruHng in Persia. Although Darius had twenty times 
as many men as Alexander had, Alexander defeated him in three great battles. 
After the third battle Darius was killed by some of his own men as he was 
trying to escape. 

doing this, the Tyrians harassed the Greeks in every pos- 
sible way. They hurled missiles of various kinds at them 
and pulled the trees and logs out of their places in the 



SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 



63 



wall. The Greeks then hung up hides of animals to pro- 
tect their workers from the attacks of the enemy. They 
also built towers for their sharpshooters, but these the 
Tyrians burned in a rather ingenious way. They filled 
old ships with pitch and other 
combustible material and, setting 
them on fire, pushed them out 
against the towers and burned them 
down. Tyrian divers also fastened 
ropes to the trees and logs in the 
wall and pulled them from their 
places. 

Alexander, however, finally suc- 
ceeded in building the wall out 
to the island. Here he had an- 
other fierce fight. A wall had 
been built all around the edge of 
the island. This Alexander pro- ^ Soldier^^of^^Alexander's 

Ceeded to demolish by means of The Macedonian phalanx was 

battering rams. But he had no ^ '°^^^ a''\''^ "^J •^H''^'' 

^ deep and a thousand m hne. 

easy task. The defenders lowered They were armed with spears. 

This body moved in a mass 
blocks of stone to ward on the and nothing could withstand 
11 r j-i, rr^x. it on level ground. It plowed 

blows of the rams. The ropes through armies Hke a great 

from which the blocks were sus- ^^^^^me. 
pended were cut by scythes, and then iron cables were 
used. Bags of sea-weed were also lowered to deaden the 
blows of the rams, and red-hot metal and white-hot sand 
were hurled against the Greeks as they attempted to scale 
the wall. Finally, Alexander succeeded in battering down 
the wall, but right here he met another surprise. He 
found that while he was breaking the outer wall, the 




64 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Tyrians were building an inner one to take its place. 
This one he battered down also, and so, after a long 
siege, entered the city. The Tyrians retreated to the 
roofs of their buildings and threw rocks upon the 
heads of the Greek invaders. But they were finally 
compelled to submit and their city, which they had 
defended so well, was wiped off the map, and the flat- 
topped rock was used only as a drying place for the nets 
of fishermen. 

Alexandria. From Tyre, Alexander pushed down into 
Egypt. The most notable thing that he did there was to 
found Alexandria, which came to be the most important 
commercial and educational city of the world. Before this 
time, the site was a hiding place for pirates. At a later 
time, it became a city of five hundred thousand inhabi- 
tants and the center of the world's culture. Here was the 
famous Museum, an institution something like a modern 
college or university, with its lecture rooms, art galleries, 
botanical gardens, and famous library, with its seven hun- 
dred thousand priceless manuscripts. It became the haunt 
for the famous scholars of the world. Eratosthenes calcu- 
lated the circumference of the earth to be twenty-eight 
thousand miles. Another scientist showed that the sun is 
the center of the solar system and that the earth rotates 
on its axis. Euclid wrote his geometry; another mathe- 
matician used calculus, and one of the scientists almost 
proved the circulation of the blood. It was many hun- 
dreds of years before the world again saw such remarkable 
progress in science and learning as that which received 
its inspiration from Alexandria. It is not too much to say 
that the geographers and scientific men of Alexandria 



SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 



65 




66 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

aided greatly in the discovery of America. They made 
the great work of Columbus possible. 

In every sense, Alexandria was a wonderful city. It 
''seemed fragrant with all the riches of Greek thought and 
song." Here, Alexander was buried at the early age of 
thirty-two. His career, though short, was wonderful. He 
never refused to fight and he never lost a battle. Yet his 
great work was not in fighting battles, but in spreading 
Greek civihzation. There are some who think that he 
did more for the world's civilization than any other human 
being. One writer says, ''No single personahty, excepting 
the carpenter's Son of Nazareth, has done so much to 
make the world we live in what it is as Alexander of 
Macedon." 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Compare the methods employed by Alexander in the siege and 
capture of Tyre with the methods used in the recent European war. 

2. How did the geographers and scientific men of Alexandria aid in 
the discovery of America? 

3. Was Alexander justified in attacking Thebes and Tyre? 

4. Draw from memory a map of the Greek colonies. 

5. Draw from memory a map of Alexander's March. 

6. Why did people like Alexander? 

7. What were some of the civiUzing influences that Alexander extended 
throughout the world? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Bucephalus, bu-sef'd-lws Gordium. gor'di-wm 

Delphic, del'flk Oracle, or'd-k'l 

Eratosthenes, er'd-tos'the-nez Tarsus, tar'sws 

EucUd. u'klid Tyre, tir 



ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 67 



CHAPTER VII 

THE ROMANS AS THE SUCCESSORS OF THE 

GREEKS 

Rome conquered Greece hut Greece in turn conquered Rome. 
" The conquered led captive the conquer or. ^^ — Roman Poet. 

Greek civilization "was borne into Asia on the chariot of a con- 
queror, while it was brought into Italy in the chains of a captive.'' 

The Romans, Empire Builders. You will remember 
that the Greeks planted colonies on all sides of the Me- 
diterranean Sea. The Greeks, however, never took pos- 
session of these countries. They simply built their 
city-colonies but made no attempt at conquest. Even the 
colonists themselves were not under the control of the 
mother country. The Greeks, aside from Alexander, 
seemed to have no desire for empire or for conquest. 
The colonies were as free as the mother country. Now, 
however, there arose in the west another people of a very 
different kind. They were empire builders, somewhat like 
the Persians, and delighted in taking land by conquest. 
These men were famous soldiers and governors, and in the 
course of a few centuries, they took possession of all the 
countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. These 
people were called Romans, and one writer has called the 
Mediterranean Sea a ^' Roman lake." Let us see how 
this nation began and how the Romans built up their 
great empire. 

The Founding of Rome. Do you recall the story of 
Romulus and Remus and the founding of the city of Rome? 



68 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Romulus and Remus were twin boys who were thrown 
into the Tiber River by a wicked king. They drifted 
ashore and were rescued and reared by a kind-hearted 
shepherd. When they became men, the story says, they 
founded the city of Rome (753 b.c), near the spot where 
their rescue took place. They soon quarreled, Remus was 
killed and Romulus became the first king of Rome. 

" The Seven Hills of Rome." According to tradition, 
the first settlement was on the Palatine Hill. Soon, how- 
ever, with an increase in population, the city spread to 
the other hills, six in number, and Rome became 'Hhe 
mistress of the seven hills." At first, the Romans could 
not occupy the valleys between the hills because they 
were wet and swampy, but later they were drained and 
made habitable by means of immense stone sewers. The 
new city was easily defended from its enemies and was 
favorably situated for the purpose of trade. It was near 
the Tiber River and, being eighteen miles from the sea, 
was not in easy reach of pirates. Rome, because of her 
position, soon grew strong enough to extend her con- 
quering sway over Italy and, later, over the entire 
Mediterranean world. 

Rome^s Brave Defenders. The spirit of Rome's war- 
riors was more important than her position on the hill- 
tops. Do you recall the story of Horatius at the bridge? 
Lars Porsena, an Etruscan king, was bearing down from 
the north upon Rome with a mighty army. The city 
seemed doomed, but did not despair. Horatius Codes, 
with two companions, met the enemy at a narrow wooden 
bridge, over which the Etruscans attempted to pass into 
the city. Horatius, deserted by his two men, held the 



ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 



69 



bridge until the Romans tore down the part back of him, 
and thus cut off the Etruscans from the city. The enemy 
then called upon him to surrender, but instead he threw 
himself into the Tiber, with his heavy armor on, and swam 
in safety to the fields on the other shore. He was received 




HORATIUS AT THE BrIDGE 

with great shouts of joy, and later a statue, representing 
him holding the entire Etruscan army at bay, was erected 
in his honor. 

Cincinnatus at the Plow. To the north and east of the 
Romans there lived a people called the Aequians. With 
these also the Romans waged a war, and, according to the 
story, were getting the worst of it. The Roman army was 
entrapped in a valley and about to be destroyed, when the 



70 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

country turned to a simple farmer for deliverance. Cin- 
cinnatus was a distinguished soldier who had retired to a 
small farm a few miles from Rome. The Senate now made 
him Dictator and a messenger was sent to urge him to 
come to Rome at once and raise an army for the defense 
of the city. When the messenger arrived, he found Cin- 
cinnatus plowing in the field. Upon receiving his mes- 
sage, the old soldier left his oxen standing in the furrow, 
went directly to Rome, raised an army, captured the 
entire force of the Aequians, and sent it ^^ under the yoke.'' 
The yoke consisted of a spear, supported on two other 
spears, thrust into the ground. Passing under the yoke 
was the greatest humiliation that could befall a spirited 
soldier. He had to bow low in token of subjection. 

Cincinnatus was given a great triumph when he returned 
to Rome. A procession moved along the principal streets 
and escorted the triumphal car, in which the great general 
rode, clad in splendid robes. When this was over, he laid 
aside his purple garments, resigned his commission as 
Dictator, and went back to the simple life of his four- 
acre farm. 

The great strength of Rome lay in such citizens as Cin- 
cinnatus. At the time of our Civil War, tens of thou- 
sands of American citizens left their plows standing in the 
furrows and fought for the preservation of the Union. 
After the war was over, they, like Cincinnatus, quietly 
returned to their former duties. Such men as these make 
a nation great. 

The Romans knew no such word as ^^fail" and by 
275 B.C., or about fifty years after Alexander's death, they 
had possession of all of Italy from the Rubicon to Sicily. 



ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 



71 



The Wars with Carthage. Could the Romans remain 
contented in Italy? By no means. While Rome was 
growing strong in Italy, another great power was spring- 
ing up on the coast of Africa, opposite Sicily. By the time 
that Rome had obtained possession of the Italian penin- 




IloMAN Soldiers 
These men conquered the world for Rome. 

sula, Carthage had secured two thousand miles of sea- 
coast in north Africa. The Mediterranean world was too 
small for both of them and Cato, a Roman leader of this 
time, concluded every one of his speeches with the words, 
'^ Carthage must be destroyed." Carthage was finally de- 
stroyed by Rome, but not without a mighty struggle. 



72 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Hannibal. The Romans waged three wars with the 
Carthaginians and the greatest hero of these wars on the 
Carthaginian side was Hannibal. Hannibal came from a 
fighting family and one that hated the very name of 
Rome. When but a boy of nine, his father took him 



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before the altar of one of their gods and asked him to 
take an oath of everlasting hostility to the Romans. This 
he did and how well he lived up to his oath we shall 
soon see. 

Hannibal was a truly wonderful man and one of the 
most skillful military leaders of all time. He combined 
courage with prudence. His body apparently never be- 
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ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 



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74 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

endure extremes of hunger and cold when necessary. He 
ate and drank in moderation and often worked both day 
and night, sleeping only when there was nothing else to 
be done. He would wrap himself up in his cloak and he 
down on the ground, wherever he happened to be, and 
sleep in the midst of the sentinels of the army. He 
dressed as a plain officer, but carried splendid weapons 
and always rode the best of horses. 

Hannibal Crosses the Alps. Hannibal conceived a bold 
idea. He resolved to beard the Roman lion in his 
den, or, in other words, to carry the war to the very 
gates of Rome. So he took his army, went into Spain, 
crossed the Pyrenees Mountains and the Rhone River, 
and began to climb the Alps. This was a very difficult 
task. The way was steep, narrow, and icy and beset 
with all sorts of obstacles. The natives watched his prog- 
ress and rolled huge bowlders down the mountain sides 
upon his train of pack animals. In this way he lost a 
large part of his provisions. His elephants, too, were not 
on their good behavior, and caused him a great deal of 
trouble. But he finally came to the summit and looked 
down upon Italy. He probably had his oath in mind when 
he said to his men, ''Yonder in the distance lies Rome." 
He reached the top of the mountains, but he had paid the 
penalty. He started with sixty thousand men. He now 
had less than one half of that number, and these were 
hungry and worn out and their horses were tired and 
lame. 

Hannibal's strong heart, however, never faltered. There 
was no Roman commander who was anything like a match 
for him and he out-generaled the enemy on every hand. 



ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 



75 



At Lake Trasimenus, near Rome, he set a trap for the 
enemy. He took an unusual route across the marshes, 
wading for four days and three nights through mud 
and mire. He then threw himself upon the surprised 




Hannibal Crossing the Alps 

Romans, killed the commander, and destroyed their entire 
army. After the battle, his men talked of dining in the 
city of Rome within a few days. 

The Battle of Cannae (216 B.C.). He then pushed on to 
Cannae in southeast Italy where he fought his greatest 



76 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

battle. The Romans, now thoroughly frightened, had 
raised an army of eighty-six thousand men — the largest 
Roman army ever put into the field up to this time. 
Now Hannibal had only fifty thousand men, but as one 
writer remarks, ^^ Hannibal's brains were worth forty 
thousand Roman soldiers." It seemed so. Hannibal 
planned the battle, and the Romans seemed to fall right 
in with his plans. He not only defeated the Roman army, 
but he crushed it utterly. It is said that seventy thousand 
Romans were slain at Cannae and that every house in 
Rome was in mourning. Hannibal sent to Carthage a 
peck of gold rings, taken from the fingers of Roman 
knights who fell in the slaughter. 

The Roman Spirit. The Carthaginians won other vic- 
tories under the splendid leadership of Hannibal, but were 
the Romans defeated? By no means. They hung on and 
triumphed in the end. The Roman generals were not so 
able as the Carthaginian, but the Roman citizens were 
rehable and steadfast. They endured to the end and 
finally triumphed. 

The Destruction of Carthage (146 B.C.). The Cartha- 
ginians were finally worn out and Hannibal went back to 
Carthage, after maintaining an army in a foreign country 
for sixteen years. The Romans pressed after him and 
''carried the war into Africa." They finally took Carthage 
in 146 B.C. They massacred the inhabitants, pillaged and 
burned the city, and cursed the very land upon which 
it stood. This was the sad ending of a proud city. 

Greece Made a Roman Province. The wars with 
Carthage furnish a good example of the way in which the 
Romans conquered the Mediterranean lands. Greece be- 



ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 77 

came a Roman province in the same year in which Car- 
thage was destroyed. The fall of Corinth in Greece was 
the final event of that war. When the city was captured 
the Roman Consul caused most of the men to be put to 
death. The rest of the people became slaves. After pil- 
laging the city, the Consul burned it. He then sent 
several ship-loads of statues and paintings to Rome. 
Many of these works of art were made by the great sculp- 
tors and painters of Greece. When the ships were setting 
out for Rome, Mummius, the Roman commander, warned 
the sailors that if they destroyed or injured any of the 
works of art on the voyage, 'Hhey must replace them 
with others of equal value." Would it be an easy 
task to replace a statue by Phidias, or a painting by 
Apelles? 

And so the Roman army stalked along the shores 
of the Mediterranean Sea. Nothing could stop the 
Roman soldier. He might be defeated at times, but he 
hung on with bull-dog grip and usually triumphed in the 
end. 

The Building of a Fleet. The great energy and re- 
sourcefulness of the Romans are well illustrated by an 
event in the wars with Carthage. In the early part of 
the war, the Romans had no fleet worthy of the name and 
they saw at once that they must have war-ships, if they 
expected to make any headway against ^Hhe sons of the 
Phoenicians." So they took as a model a Carthaginian 
ship which had been wrecked upon the Italian shore, and 
in sixty days they made one hundred just like it. Fur- 
thermore, they fitte'd out their ships with drawbridges 
which could be thrown over the decks of the enemies' 



78 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



vessels and spiked down, thus lashing the two vessels 
together. They believed that, in a hand-to-hand fight, 
they could defeat any other soldiers in the world. They 
proved themselves equal to the task. 

It is now easy to see that Rome was made great not 
by her seven hills or by the Tiber River, not by the vast 
extent of territory over which she held sway, nor the many 

tribes and nations 
which she ruled, hut 
by the splendid valor 
and the patriotic 
spirit of her citizens. 
She conquered many 
tribes, absorbing 
their strength; she 
gathered military 
skill from contact 
with the Carthagin- 
ian; she grew rich 
from the granaries 
of Africa; she ab- 
sorbed the freedom, grace, and scholarship of the 
Greeks, and welded all of these into a splendid valor 
and a patriotic citizenship. It meant something to be 
a Roman citizen. ''To be a Roman was greater than to 
be a king." 




A Roman Ship 

Vessels like this carried the commerce and the 
soldiers of Rome to all parts of the known world. 



QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. You have already seen how Greek civihzation '* was brought into 
Asia on the chariot of a conqueror." Watch carefully in this and suc- 
ceeding chapters to see how it "was brought into Italy in the chains of a 
captive." 



THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 79 

2. Compare Hannibal's attack on Rome with Alexander's siege of Tyre. 
Which expedition do you think was more difficult? 

3. What is patriotism? Can we love our country without hating others? 

4. Did you notice anything about the rise of the Greeks that was like 
the rise of the Romans? 

5. What are the important names and places in this chapter and why? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Aequians. e-kwi'ans Mummius. mum'I-Ms 

Cannae, kan'e Palatine, pard-tin 

Carthage, kar'thaj Punic, pu'nik 

Cato. ka'to Pyrenees, pir'e-nez 

Cincinnatus. sin'si-na'tws Remus. re'mMs 

Corinth. kor'Inth Rhone, ron 

Etruscan, ^trus'kan Romulus, rom'u-lws 

Hannibal. han'I-bal Sicily, sis'i-li 

Horatius Codes. h6-ra'shI-Ms ko'klez Tiber, ti'ber 

Lars Porsena. lars p6r'se-na Trasimenus. tra'se-me'nws 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 

Let us now turn our attention to the Romans in the 
West. After conquering the eastern Mediterranean coun- 
tries, the Romans turned their arms against the Gauls, in 
what is now France, against the Germans beyond the 
Danube, and against the Britons in England. From our 
standpoint, the spread of the Romans in the West is 
important because these western peoples had most to do 
with the discovery and colonization of the American 
continent. 

Caesar in Gaul. Roman rule and Roman civilization 
were carried into western Europe by Julius Caesar, the 



80 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

greatest man of the Roman world. Caesar was a member 
of one of the oldest and proudest of the aristocratic fam- 
ilies of Rome. But he believed in giving the common 
people their rights, and so became a great popular leader. 
He increased his popularity, year after year, by giving 
entertainments to the masses of the people. He amused 
them from time to time by giving sham battles on the 
Tiber and gladiatorial fights in the arena. The people 
liked him and he was elected to one office after another 
until finally he became Consul, the highest official in the 
land. 

In the year 58 b.c. he led an army into Gaul and pro- 
ceeded to make a conquest of that country. Here he and 
his men fought bravely, and, in the course of a few years, 
he had conquered all the land now known as France, 
Belgium, and Holland. In doing this, however, he met 
men worthy of his steel. 

Vercingetorix, Chief of the Gauls. The greatest of these 
was Vercingetorix, a noble young Gaul. He was a spirited 
patriot and was unwilhng to submit to Roman rule. He, 
therefore, raised a revolt against the power of Caesar and 
attempted to drive the Romans out of his native land. 
He tried to starve out the Roman army by burning sup- 
plies and destroying towns. No less than a score of 
cities were ablaze on a single day and the Romans were 
in the midst of a sea of flame. One city was spared and 
here the Gauls took refuge and defended themselves for 
about a month. Finally, Caesar dashed against it in the 
midst of a driving rain and captured the town. The in- 
habitants, men, women, and children, were massacred. 

Vercingetorix was making some headway, however. He 



THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 81 




Julius Caesar 
Julius Caesar was a great Roman general, statesman, orator, and writer. 



82 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



met and defeated Caesar — the only time that Caesar was 
ever defeated in an open battle. In another battle, 
Caesar was captured but later he was rescued by his men. 
Caesar now redoubled his efforts and Vercingetorix was 
compelled to take refuge in the hill-top city of Alesia in 
eastern Gaul. Caesar laid siege to this place, but found 
the task a very difficult one. But, finally, the organized 





Vercingetorix and his Soldiers 



strength and skill of the Romans began to prevail over the 
great numbers and savage bravery of the Gauls. Ver- 
cingetorix, seeing that the day was lost, went to the camp 
of Caesar and gave himself up as a prisoner, in order to 
save his followers from slaughter. Caesar took his noble 
captive to Rome, where he graced the triumphal proces- 
sion and was later put to death in a dungeon. He was the 



THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 



83 



best fighter the Romans had met in a hundred and fifty 
years and deserved a better fate. A monument was 
erected to his memory on the site of his heroic stand. 

The Germans. While in Gaul, Caesar also came into 
contact with the dreaded Germans. The Romans had 




The Meeting of Caesar and Ariovistus' 

Ariovistus proposed to share the territory of Gaul with the Romans. Caesar 
rejected this proposition and war followed. The Roman soldiers were so 
frightened by the warlike appearance of the Germans that they hesitated 
about entering the battle. It was here that Caesar remarked that if all other 
soldiers failed him he would face the foe with the Tenth Legion alone. The 
battle was fought, the Germans were defeated, and Ariovistus escaped across 
the Rhine River in a small boat. 

heard alarming stories about the great size and terrible 
appearance of these people and were not at all anxious 
to meet them in battle. So when Ariovistus, a German 
king, crossed the Rhine River into Gaul to seek homes for 
his people, the Roman soldiers were greatly alarmed. But 



84 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Caesar was equal to the occasion. He said, ''If no others 
will follow me against the Germans, I shall go forward 
with the tenth legion alone." The flattered tenth legion 
said that it was ready to march, and others went also. 
The result was that Ariovistus was beaten in battle and 
was driven back to his home in Germany. 

Caesar in Britain. We must follow Caesar into still 
another country. While he was campaigning in Gaul, 
some of the Britons living in the country now known as 
England, aided the Gauls against the Romans. The 
Gauls and Britons belonged to the same race, and the 
Britons probably came to the conclusion that if the Romans 
conquered the Gauls, their turn would come next. Caesar 
also had heard numerous stories about the wealth and 
beauty of the island and probably had some curiosity to 
see the country for himself and possibly to add it to the 
domain of Rome. 

Therefore, one day in August, 55 B.C., a crowd of half- 
naked barbarians with painted faces saw Caesar's ships 
put into port near the modern English town of Deal. 
The Britons tried to prevent them from landing, but to 
no avail. After defeating the natives in several skir- 
mishes and losing some of his ships in a great storm off the 
British coast, Caesar prepared to go back to Gaul. He 
robbed the harvest fields of the Britons to get food for 
his army, and then sailed away. 

In the following summer he returned to Britain with a 
larger force of men. This time he landed twenty-two 
thousand soldiers without opposition on the part of the 
natives. When he began his march inland, however, 
the Britons fell upon him. Nevertheless, he pushed as far 



THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 



85 



north as the Thames River, chastising the Britons, and 
burning their huts as he went. The Britons, no doubt, 
breathed a sigh of reUef when, a few weeks later, they 
saw his boats vanish in the distance. They were content 




The Landing of the Romans in Britain 

to allow the Gauls to fight their own battles after that. 
Caesar wrote an account of his experiences and observa- 
tions in Britain and with this account the written history 
of Britain begins. 

The Real Conquest of Britain. It cannot be said, how- 



86 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

ever, that Caesar made a conquest of Britain, or that he 
added it to the Roman Empire, for he did neither. He 
found the island and told the Romans enough about its 
resources and people to arouse their curiosity and to make 
them wish to have it as a part of the empire. And yet 
for a hundred years they took no steps in this direction. 
Finally, in 43 a.d., they began a systematic conquest of 
the island which extended over many years. After a long 
period of fierce fighting, the Romans got possession of all of 
that part of the island known as England and built great 
walls near the Scottish border for defense against the war- 
like peoples of the north. 

Roman Civilization in Britain. When the Romans came 
into Britain, they brought other things with them besides 
their swords. They lived there for three hundred fifty 
years and brought Roman civilization with them. They 
built towns over all the island and in these towns were 
temples, theaters, and fine buildings — better ones than 
the Britons had ever dreamed of. They also drained the 
marshes, cleared away the forests, and built roads which 
have lasted even to this day. Four great Roman roads 
spread out from London and led to important parts of the 
island. The Romans also built great walls for defense 
and some parts of these still exist. They taught the 
Britons to cultivate their land in a better way, to make 
better clothes, and in every way to live better. A 
Roman villa, with its baths, works of art, and general 
refinement, was an object lesson in civilization to the rude 
Britons. In religion, there were marked changes. The 
Britons, with their Druid form of worship, offered up 
human beings as sacrifices in their dark groves. The 



THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 87 

Romans brought with them their gods and temples, and 
later Christianity appeared in different parts of the 
island. 

The man who had most to do with the spread of Roman 
power in the West was Julius Caesar, the greatest man 
ever produced by Rome and one of the greatest in all 
history. 

It should be remembered that wherever the Romans 
went they brought Roman hfe, industry, art, religion, law, 
and literature with them. They also taught a plan of 
organized government which has made possible safe living 
in great cities. Rome gave to the world and to us an 
idea of the importance of citizenship. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. You have seen in this chapter how the Roman Empire is spreading. 
Have you also noticed that Caesar, the Great Roman Empire builder, did 
his great work in the century preceding the birth of Christ, and the begin- 
ning of the Christian religion? Keep this in mind in the next few chapters. 

2. Which do you think had the better ideas about empire building, 
the Persians or the Romans? 

3. Which would you rather be, a citizen of the Roman Empire or of the 
British Empire of to-day? Why? 

4. What was Rome's greatest contribution to the world? 

5. Compare Caesar with Hannibal and note the differences. Why was 
Caesar greater than Hannibal? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Alesia. d-le'si-d Gaul, gol 

Ariovistus. a-rfo-vis'tws Julius Caesar, jdol'i-ws se'zdr 

Danube, dan'ub Rhine, rin 

Druid. droo'Id Vercingetorix. vur'sln-j6t'6-riks 



88 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



CHAPTER IX 
ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 

Crossing the Rubicon. At this point we are just a 
httle ahead of our story and must retrace our steps for 
a few moments. While Caesar was winning land and 
laurels in Gaul, some other leaders of the Roman State 
were becoming exceedingly jealous of him. His enemies 
induced the Senate to order that he should give up his 
whole army upon a certain day or be declared a public 
enemy. Instead of giving up his army, he marched with 
it upon Rome to chastise his eneixiies. This was a very 
serious thing to do and Caesar was well aware of it. It 
was against the Roman law for any one to enter Italy 
without laying down his arms at the boundary. And 
when Caesar came to the Rubicon River, which separated 
his province of Gaul from Italy, he hesitated. But finally 
exclaiming, '^The die is cast," he crossed the river, and with 
a loud blast of his trumpet, called upon his troops to fol- 
low. This they did and marched with Caesar against the 
city of Rome. Here Caesar quickly scattered his enemies 
and was soon the master of the city. 

He next defeated his enemies in Egypt and in other 
parts of the East. After one of his battles, he sent his 
famous message to Rome, ^'Veni, vidi, vici" (meaning, '^I 
came, I saw, I conquered"), which indicates the rapidity 
with which he acted. He was now master of the Roman 
world, and became, in reality, the first Emperor of the 



ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 



89 



Roman Empire. He did not live long, however, to enjoy 
his power, as he was cruelly murdered in the Senate Cham- 
ber at Rome (44 B.C.), in the fifty-sixth year of his age. 
His former friends, jealous of his great success, fell upon 




Caesar Crossing the Rubicon 

him with their daggers, and he dropped, pierced by twenty- 
three wounds. A Roman historian tells us that the people 
looked upon him as a god and that a comet which blazed 
in the sky for seven days was thought to be the soul of 
Caesar as it entered the kingdom of heaven. 



90 



. INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



And SO, slowly but surely, the Roman army took pos- 
session of the countries from England to Egypt and from 
the Danube to the great African desert. The Romans 

were defeated at times, but 
they fought with that grim 
determination which finally 
crowned them with success. 
The City of Rome. Julius 
Caesar was succeeded in 
power by his grand-nephew, 
Octavius, or Augustus, as he 
is better known. This 
young man of nineteen was 
a youth of remarkable abil- 
ity, and during his reign 
Rome enjoyed 'Hhe Golden 
Age" of her prosperity. 
Augustus was Emperor for 
some years both before and 
after the birth of Christ, 
and during that time Rome 
reached the pinnacle of her 
greatness. The ^^Age of Augustus" in Rome corresponds 
to the ''Age of Pericles" in Greece. At the close of his 
reign, Augustus boasted that he found Rome a city of 
brick and left it a city of marble. Some of the wonders 
of this city of marble are worthy of our attention. 

The Forum. The Forum was the architectural center 
of the city. It was a large, open space and corresponded 
in some respects to the Acropolis at Athens. It was the 
scene of the old market place of the early days, but later 



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ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 



91 




92 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



became the center of a mass of beautiful and inspiring 
buildings, including palaces, theaters, circuses, baths, tombs, 
triumphal arches, columns, and other monuments. These 
were enlarged copies of the buildings which the Romans 
found in Greece. Some of these were in the Forum, others 




The Pantheon 

The above picture was taken from a photograph of a small model, showing 
how the Pantheon looked in the "Golden Age." 

near it, and still others scattered about in different parts 
of the city. 

The Pantheon. One of the most beautiful buildings of 
Rome was the Pantheon, or the ''Temple of all the gods." 
It was built by Augustus and may be said to be the Roman 
Parthenon (see page 45). 

The Coliseum. The Romans were very fond of fights 
and contests of all kinds, but were not always fair sports- 



ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 



93 



men. They loved the sensational and brutal form of con- 
test. One of the Emperors built the famous Coliseum, 
which was the scene of gladiatorial contests and fights 
between wild beasts and men. The most savage animals 
that could be found were procured for this purpose from 




K Gladiatorial Combat 

When one of the fighters had his opponent at his mercy he looked up to the 
spectators to see whether or not they wished to have his hfe taken. Holding 
the thumbs up was the signal for sparing the life of the vanquished man while 
holding the thumbs down indicated that he should be put to death. 

distant forests and deserts. The effects of these shows 
were degrading and brutalizing, and yet the crowds went 
wild over them. The prize fight and the bull fight of the 
present day are about all that remain of this low form 
of recreation. 

The Circus Maximus, or Great Circus, was built for 
sports and contests of various kinds, chief among them 



94 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



being the chariot races. The Circus was two thousand 
feet long and six hundred feet wide, and would seat four 
hundred thousand people. The chariot races were a most 
thrilling spectacle. Daring and reckless drivers drove the 
fastest horses that could be procured. Usually they drove 
seven times around the course, a distance of four miles. 
The turns were short for such terrific speed and very fre- 
quently horses, chariots, and drivers fell into a tangled 




A Chariot Race 

heap. In fact, the drivers, instead of attempting to win 
the race on its merits, often tried to ^' spill their opponents.'' 
The Public Baths were among the finest of the Roman 
buildings. They were beautiful and spacious structures 
with granite and marble columns and floors of fine mosaic. 
Much of the marble used was brought over from Greece. 
In addition to the baths and swimming pools, there were 
gymnasiums, lounging rooms, art galleries and reading 
rooms, and halls for conversation. These baths were club 
houses for rich and poor alike and became the social cen- 
ters of Rome. 



i 



ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 95 

In addition to these public buildings, the Romans built 
fine roads, aqueducts, and private dwellings. The founda- 
tions of some of these roads are still solid after a lapse of 
two thousand years. The aqueducts brought water from 
the surrounding hills to the city for use. The aqueduct 
was made of stone and was built with a slight incline 
towards the city and never with ups and downs as we now 
lay our water pipes. Mountains were leveled and valleys 
were bridged over for the passage of the waterway. 

Education. In education, as in many other things, the 
Romans imitated the Greeks. In fact, Greek teachers 
were found in Roman schools and in Roman private fam- 
ilies. The Romans, however, made one very great im- 
provement upon the education of the Greeks — they 
educated their girls to some extent, at least as well as the 
boys. 

The schools were private, not public as with us, and a 
small fee was paid by the pupil. The boy entered school 
at the age of six or seven, and was taught reading, writing, 
and arithmetic. At a later time he was taught Greek, 
rhetoric, oratory, and philosophy. It was considered very 
important that the boy be able to speak in public and he 
was given frequent exercises to this end. The school work 
began before sunrise and the discipline, like that of the 
Roman army, was exceedingly severe. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. What effect had the bmdmg together of the Mediterranean world 
into one great empire upon the spreading of Christianity? 

2. If there is some one in your community who has visited Rome, ask 
your teacher to invite him to come and talk to your class. Get him to tell 
you about the Forum, the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the Baths of Caracalla, 
the great Aqueducts, etc. Be ready to ask him questions. 



96 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

3. How did the education of the Roman boy differ from that of the Greek 
boy? 

4. Have you ever visited the capital of your state or nation? Rome was 
a beautiful city, but Washington is beautiful also. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Caracalla. kar'd-kard Forum, fo'rwm 

Circus Maximus. sur'kiis mtlk'si- Octavius. 6c-ta'\'i-ws 
m us Pantheon. pSn-the'on 

Coliseum, kol'i-se'wm Rubicon, roo'bi-kon 



CHAPTER X 
CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

Just at the time when the Roman empire was at the 
height of its power under the Emperor Augustus, the 
founder of Christianity was born in Bethlehem, a httle 
village in Judea. There he went about teaching the doc- 
trines of his new religion, and after his death his followers 
carried on the work. Paul and other apostles went to 
Athens and other important cities of the Roman Empire 
to spread the new faith. 

Persecution of the Christians. There were many reli- 
gions in the Empire and Rome tolerated them all as we 
do in our country. The Roman emperors, at first, took 
no notice of the Christians. The believers in the new 
religion were drawn, for the most part, from the lower 
classes of society, and almost no attention was paid to 
them by the governing classes. They did not seem to 
be worthy of notice. Soon, however, the Christians came 
to be looked upon as an objectionable body of people and 



i 



CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



97 



were called '^haters of mankind." They refused to wor- 
ship the gods of the Romans. To them that was idol- 
worship and a sin. The Christians held secret meetings 
and this fact also aroused suspicion against them. The 
pagans accused them of many crimes, including canni- 
balism, and many believed that famine, pestilence, and 
other calamities were sent upon the Romans by their 




The Last Prayer 

The Christians in Rome, under some of the Emperors, were compelled to 
undergo cruel tortures. Here we see a group of them about to be sacrificed 
to wild beasts before a vast crowd in the Coliseum. 



gods because of the offenses of the Christians. Soon the 
Christians came to be despised and feared by some of the 
Emperors. Wicked emperors, like Nero, persecuted them 
almost for the fun of it, and good men, hke Marcus 
Aurelius, did so as a pious duty. 

The Persecutions of Nero. The young Nero was only 
seventeen years of age when he became Emperor and he 



98 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



was more interested in dancing and other forms of amuse- 
ment than he was in anything else. He, therefore, turned 
over the government to others for a time. It would have 
been better for the Christians and for all concerned if he 
had kept his hands off altogether. But he did not. 

A large part of the city of Rome was burned during 
Nero's reign, and the Emperor, because of his peculiar 

antics, was accused 



of setting it on fire. 
He seemed to enjoy 
the burning very 
much and an old 
story tells us that 
he played his harp 
while the city burned. 
In order to ward off 
suspicion from him- 
self, he accused the 
Christians of setting 
the fire and pro- 
Nero Watching the Burning of Rome ceeded to punish 

them for it. They were tortured very cruelly. A Roman 
historian tells us that ''in their deaths they were made the 
subjects of sport; for they were covered with skins of 
wild beasts, worried to death by dogs, and being covered 
with pitch were biu-ned to serve for torches in the night. 
Nero offered his garden for this spectacle." The Roman 
people showed signs of pity for the sufferers, but the cruel 
Emperor did not relent. This outburst against the Chris- 
tians was not entirely on reUgious grounds and did not 
extend beyond the city of Rome. 




CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



99 



Christianity grew, however, in spite of persecution. It 
may have grown more rapidly because of it. The Chris- 
tians were very aggressive. They beheved that it was their 
holy duty to convert all men to their faith. The new 
religion also had something to offer which the old pagan 
religion did not have. It was the first religion to teach 
universal brotherhood, that the soul of the slave was as 
good as the soul of 
an Emperor, and it 
recognized no caste 
or class distinction. 
It also taught par- 
don for sins and the 
immortality of the 
soul, or the life after 
the life on earth. 
Many poor and op- 
pressed souls found 
comfort and solace 
in the teachings of 
the Christians. 
Christianity grew 
steadily and Christian teachers appeared all over the 
Empire. 

Constantine and the Flaming Cross. Finally Constan- 
tine became Emperor in the early part of the fourth cen- 
tury. He was a masterful man with splendid insight into 
the problems of government. He saw the growing power 
of the Christians and probably wished to have their assist- 
ance in his wars. He was also friendly to the doctrines of 
Christianity, and it is said that while on a military cam- 




CONSTANTINE SeES THE FlAMING CrOSS IN 

THE Sky 



100 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

paign, he saw in the heavens a flaming sign of the Cross, 
with the words upon it, ''By this sign you shall conquer." 
It is said that he made a vow to accept the God of the 
Christians in case of success. He won his battle and was 
immediately baptized into the Christian faith. This story 
may or may not be true, but it is certain that Constan- 
tine became a Christian and made Christianity the state 
religion of the Roman Empire. 

Now that Christianity had the official endorsement of 
the Emperor, it spread rapidly in all parts of the Empire. 
Many thrilling stories could be told of the work of devoted 
missionaries of the Christian Church, if our space per- 
mitted. Perhaps you wdll recall some of these stories and 
possibly you may have time to read some in other books. 

Summary. Let us now sum up briefly what has been 
said in the last few chapters. Greece inherited the civili- 
zation of Egypt, Phoenicia, and other oriental countries. 
She adopted the best of this civilization, improved upon it, 
and handed it on to her successors, the Romans. As the 
Romans conquered country after country in their trium- 
phal swing around the Mediterranean, they found every- 
where the seeds of Greek culture, planted by Greek col- 
onists. They also captured Greek cities, such as Corinth, 
and carried away their art treasures to Rome. They 
studied the writings of the great Greek authors and 
employed Greek teachers in their schools. In this way, 
the Romans adopted and absorbed the civilization of the 
Greeks and carried it into every nook and corner of the 
Mediterranean world. 

The Romans were very different from the Greeks. The 
Greeks were men of thought, while the Romans were 



CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 101 

men of action. The Greeks delighted and excelled in 
poetry, history, oratory, philosophy, sculpture, painting, 
and architecture, while the Romans were at their best in 
conquering and in governing. They excelled in the so- 
called practical things, while they imitated Greek art and 
literature. They built roads and aqueducts, sewers and 
temples, which are in existence at the present day. Their 
greatest original contribution to civilization, however, was 
in law and government. The government and patriotism 
of the Greeks were narrow. They were limited to a single 
city. The Romans made them world-wide. It was a very 
fortunate thing that Greek and Jloman civilization came 
into contact. They worked well together. The Romans 
added what was lacking in the Greeks and between them 
they gave much to later civilization. They are among 
the ''makers of America.'' Many of our government 
buildings in Washington are patterned after Greek models. 
Greek and Latin are taught in our schools. Greek art 
abounds in our art galleries. Our engineers have studied 
the roads, sewers, and aqueducts of Rome. Roman law 
is taught in our universities. The alphabet used on this 
page and the numerals at the heads of the chapters are 
Roman; and last, and by no means least, it was the Romans 
who brought the Christian religion to those nations who 
discovered and colonized the United States of America. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. How do you account for the marvelous spread of the Christian re- 
ligion in spite of the bitter persecution? 

2. The catacombs of St. Calixtus on the famous Appian Way, a short 
distance out from Rome, may be visited to-day. Here you will see the 
underground rooms in which the early Christians worshiped when it meant 
death to admit being a Christian. 



102 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

3. Why was Constantine's conversion of so great importance? 

4. Why was it fortunate that Greek and Roman civiUzation came into 
contact? Name as many Greek gifts to the world as you can. 

5. Do not forget the names of some of the famous old Greeks and 
Romans. Go back to previous chapters and make a Ust of at least six of 
each nation, adding to their names what it was that they did that made 
them so notable. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Appian. jip'I-an Judea. joo-de'd 

Calixtus. ka-lIks'to6s .^ Marcus Aurelius. mar'kws 6-re'lI-^s 

Constantine. kon'stan-tin Nero, ne'ro 



CHAPTER XI 

THE GERMANS, THE SUCCESSORS AND HEIRS OF 

THE ROMANS 

"From these four sources — Greece, Rome, Christianity, and the 
Germans — are derived the principal elements of our modern 
civilization,'^ — George B. Adams. 

We now bid good-bye to the Romans and seek an intro- 
duction to their successors and heirs, the Germans. After 
the Roman had conquered the world, he seemed to have 
nothing else to do. So he gave himself up to ease, idle- 
ness, and luxury. He became indolent and sluggish, both 
in body and in mind. He seemed to lose his old-time 
vigor and patriotism and to care more for gambling, 
chariot races, gladiatorial shows, and the tricks of politics. 
There was fighting enough to be done, of course, but he 
preferred to hire some one to do it for him. A nation 
made up of such men cannot last long, so we will now 
see how the Romans were compelled to step aside and give 
way to the vigorous and hardy Germans. 



THE GERMANS 



103 



The Germans. While the Romans were building up a 
great empire about the Mediterranean Sea, another and a 
very different people had their homes east of the Rhine 




l.L.POATES CO., N.Y. 



Europe in the Early Centuries of the Christian Era 

and north of the Danube River. These people were called 
Germans. In one sense these Germans were not worthy 
successors of the Romans, but in another sense they were. 
They were not so highly civilized as the Romans — in 
fact, the Germans at this time were rude barbarians — 



104 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



but they had the fresh vigor, the red blood, and the brains 
which later made them the leaders of Europe. 

The country of the Germans at this time was not invit- 
ing. It was rough and rugged and covered, for the most 
part, with dark forests and unhealthful swamps. The 
climate was severe and living was hard. The people lived 




A German HoMi^.^iKAD 

The early German lived an independent life in the forests and among the 
mountains. He was a good fighter and a bold hunter. 

in rude huts, huddled together in little clusters, somewhat 
like the wigwams of an Indian village. They made a 
living by hunting, fishing, caring for their flocks, and by 
a very primitive kind of agriculture. 

The German was fair, tall, and strong and enjoyed 
fighting rather more than working. He loved freedom, 



THE GERMANS 105 

was a man of his word, and had many other substantial 
quaUties. On the other hand, he was fond of gambhng 
and addicted to drink. He worshiped heathen gods, prom- 
inent among which were Woden, the god of the sky, 
and Thor, the god of thunder and Hghtning, from whom 
we derive the names of our days, Wednesday and Thurs- 
day. 

The German Invasion. It was natural enough that 
these restless barbarians should cast longing eyes at the 
wealth and civilization of the Roman Empire. The 
beautiful fields, the fine homes, and the mild climate 
attracted them and soon they began to make forays and 
inroads into various parts of the Roman world. 

Now, while the Romans conquered other peoples, they 
never made much headway against the Germans. Julius 
Caesar, it is true, drove Ariovistus, the Germanic chieftain, 
back into his forests and punished his followers, but gen- 
erals like Caesar were very scarce in Rome in the later 
days. Even Augustus tried to make a conquest of the 
Germans but was compelled to give it up. In the year 
9 A.D., he sent his general. Varus, at the head of an army 
against the Germans. Hermann, the great Germanic 
chieftain, however, rallied his people and destroyed the 
Roman army in the Teutoberg Forest. Augustus was 
sorely grieved and cried out in despair, ^^Oh, Varus, Varus, 
give me back my legions." Varus could not do so, how- 
ever, as the bodies of his soldiers were scattered widely 
over the country and their bones had been left to whiten 
in the German forests. 

The Battle of Adrianople (378 a.d.). After the Romans 
stopped sending armies against the Germans, the Germans 



106 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



began to send armies against the Romans. The tables 
were turned and the Romans were now fighting on the 
defensive. 

The first great German invasion of Roman territory 
came about in this way. The Goths, a German tribe, 
were Uving at peace north of the Danube River. Sud- 




The Victorious Germans Returning from Teutoberg Forest 



denly the terrible Huns appeared from Asia, fell upon 
them, and drove them from their homes. These Huns 
were a fiendish set of stunted, blood-thirsty men. They 
were almost dwarfs in size, but their small bodies were 
filled with a terrible vigor. Small beady eyes ghstened 
in their yellow, weazened faces. Their faces were also 
beardless and scarred. It was their custom to burn the 
faces of their boys with hot irons in order to make them 
fierce in appearance. 

When these hideous dwarfs appeared upon the Danube 



THE GERMANS 107 

the Goths were thrown into confusion. About two hun- 
dred thousand of them huddled on the north bank of the 
river and implored the Roman Emperor to permit them 
to cross over. Permission was granted and a huge German 
colony was formed within the limits of the Roman Empire. 

The Romans began at once to plunder and oppress the 
fugitives, and the Goths immediately took up arms and 
defeated them in the famous 
battle of Adrianople. The em- 
peror was killed and a large 
part of his army destroyed. 
This victory encouraged the 
Goths and made them feel as 
much at home in the empire as 
if they had a right to be there. 
Meanwhile the Huns were *^'*'^' 
not idle, as we shall now see. ^ ^ 

Attila and the Huns. After their victory over the Goths, 
the Huns settled down in what is now Hungary and be- 
came a strong power. Their king, Attila, built a log cabin 
for a capitol and was looked upon as the leader of his 
race, both in Europe and in Asia. Attila was a terrible 
man, and he set out upon a campaign of death and de- 
struction in Gaul. An army of these fierce little fiends, 
riding on their fleet ponies like a cyclone, slaughtered men, 
women, and children, destroyed crops and applied the torch 
to cities as they went. It looked as though this storm- 
cloud of destruction might sweep over all western Europe, 
but fortunately the Romans and the Germans united to 
check the course of the Huns, a common enemy. 

The Battle of Chalons (451 a.d.). They met Attila a 




108 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



short distance from Chalons and there fought one of the 
fiercest and most decisive battles known to the history 
of the world. It was war to the knife, with no quarter 
given or asked. The battle made a vivid impression upon 
the people of the time, and we are told that ^Hhe blood 
from the thousands of wounds swelled to a torrent the 
brook which flowed through the field of battle." It is 
impossible to tell what would have happened to the world 




Attila, "The Scourge of God" 

if the Huns had won the battle of Chalons, but it seems 
certain that the march of civilization would have been 
stopped for a time, if not forever; and this is why this 
battle is so important. 

Attila was defeated and driven out of Gaul, but he 
appeared in Italy during the following year. People flew 
from his presence as they would from a prairie fire. Some 
of those who escaped with their lives sought refuge among 
the islands of the Adriatic Sea. This miserable settlement 
afterwards became the great and picturesque city of Venice. 
Attila then pressed on and threatened Rome, but the good 



i 



THE GERMANS 109 

bishop, Leo, induced him to spare the city. He finally 
left Italy and died soon after, and the great empire of the 
Huns fell to pieces. With the Huns out of the way, the 
Germans found it a much easier task to get possession of 
the Roman Empire. 

The Germans in Britain. While the Germans were 
taking possession of the Roman Empire, even remote 
Britain was not overlooked. Just about the time the 
Germans and Romans were combining to crush the Huns 
at Chalons, little bands of Germans, known as Angles, 
Saxons, and Jutes, began to emigrate to Britain from the 
northern part of Germany. 

You will remember that about a hundred years after the 
visits of Julius Caesar to Britain, the Romans added to 
the empire the country which we now call England. The 
Romans remained in control of England until 410 a.d., at 
which time the Germans under Alaric, a talented young 
noble who had been elected chieftain, were attacking 
Rome. This made it necessary to recall the Roman sol- 
diers from Britain in order to defend the capital city, and 
so the island of Britain was turned back again to the con- 
trol of the native inhabitants. These inhabitants had, 
however, been protected so long by the Roman army that 
they did not know how to protect themselves. They 
were, therefore, an easy prey for the savage tribes around 
them. The Picts from Scotland and the Scots from Ire- 
land plundered and killed the weak and defenseless Britons. 
They hardly knew what to do, and, in their despair, they 
asked the Romans to send back their soldiers to protect 
them. This Rome could not do, as she had more serious 
business on hand. Just at this time, so the story goes, a 



no INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

band of Jutes under their leaders, Hengist and Horsa, 
landed in the southeastern part of Britain in what is now 
the county of Kent. These Jutes were reckless rovers and 
pirates, ever ready to plunder or to fight. To them the 
Britons turned for assistance. They asked them to join 
in the war against their fierce neighbors. The Jutes 
agreed, turned in, and lent a hand. The result was that 
the combined Britons and Jutes were successful. 

Just at this point, however, a very unexpected turn 
took place. The Britons thought that since the fighting 
was over the Jutes would go their way rejoicing. But 
the Jutes could not see it in that way. They said that 
they liked the country and the climate much better than 
they did their own frozen north and that they had decided 
to stay and to make themselves at home in Britain. And 
so they stayed. Not only this, but their relatives and 
friends came trooping after them and continued to come 
for one hundred and fifty years. By that time, the new- 
comers had possession of all the land now known as 
England, and the movement, known in history as the 
Anglo-Saxon conquest, was complete. It should be re- 
membered, however, that the Germanic people never ob- 
tained possession of what we now call Scotland, Wales, 
and Ireland. The inhabitants of these latter countries 
were called Celts, of whom we shall learn more later on. 

The Roman Empire becomes a German Empire. And 
so the Germans were grabbing territory in all parts of the 
Roman Empire, and finally they brushed aside the Em- 
peror Augustulus and put their own chieftain, Odoacer, 
in his place. The Germans fought many other battles on 
Roman soil, but the one great and important thing to be re- 



THE GERMANS 111 

membered is, that, little by little, the Germans overran the 
whole Roman Empire and that in 476 they put one of their 
own number upon the throne at Rome. At this date the 
empire ceased to be Roman and became German. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Suppose the Huns instead of the Germans had been successful in 
overturning the Roman Empire, what difference would it have made? 

2. The quotation at the beginning of the chapter is a fine one. Are you 
ready to say what each of these four sources has given to our modern 
civilization? 

3. The Romans, Germans, and others seemed obliged to do a great 
deal of fighting. CiviUzed nations are still fighting. Do you think the time 
will ever come when nations will settle their difficulties without warfare? 

4. Why were the Htms feared so much? 

5. What can you say about Attila, Adrianople, Chalons, Picts, Scots, 
Jutes, Angles, Saxons, Goths? 

6. What was the Anglo-Saxon Conquest? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 



Adrianople. ad'rl-an-o'p'l 


Picts. pikts 


Alaric. al'd-rik 


Teutoberg. toi'to-biirg 


Attila. at'i-Id 


Thor. thor 


Augustulus. 6-gus'tu-lws 


Varus, va'rws 


Chalons, sha'lon' 


Venice, ven'is 


Goths, goths 


Woden wo'den 


Odoacer. o'do-a'ser 





112 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



CHAPTER XII 

THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 

" In a truer sense, perhaps, might it be said of the Germans than of 
any other people that they were the heirs of all the ages. All 
the past was their inheritance.^' — George B. Adams. 

"The torch of knowledge which antiquity had kindled had fallen 
from the hands that held it, and burned but feebly on the 
ground." 

The Dark Ages. Now let us ask, what effect did these 
German invasions have upon the civihzation of the Roman 
Empire? It received a marked setback, as we might ex- 
pect, in more ways than one. The Germans were, for the 
most part, barbarians and only a very small fraction of 
them had been converted to the Christian religion. They 
were not interested in books or works of art and they 
scoffed at the refining influences of life. It seemed for a 
time as if the lights of learning had been snuffed out by 
the hands of these rude, barbaric Germans. The masses 
of the people were not being educated and the writing of 
books had almost ceased. This state of things lasted for 
several centuries and this period is commonly known in 
history as ^'The Dark Ages." We shall see later, how- 
ever, that these ages were not really so ^^dark" as they 
appeared to be. 

While the German seemed to be a destroyer, he really 
made the civilization of the empire, in the end, better 
than it was before. The Germans had the barbarism of 
"a. young and pure race, not that of a debased and de- 



THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 




England in the Middle Ages 



Walker cl uot^jvcieii sc. 



This map shows the scene of the battle between WiUiam, the Duke of 
Normandy and Harold, the King of England. It also shows the location of 
Canterbury, the home of the famo\is Canterbury Cathedral. A little to the 
east and north of Canterbury is the landing place of St. Augustine and his 
forty monks and also of the Jutes under Hengist and Horsa. To the west 
of Canterbury is Runnjnmede, where King John signed the great charter. 



114 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

graded one." You may have seen a town or city that 
was swept by a fire or destroyed by a tornado. The 
ruins w^ere sickening to look upon, but if you visited that 
same place a few years later, you would probably find it 
built up much better than it ever was before. So it was 
with the Roman Empire. The Germans destroyed a great 
part of Roman civilization, but they preserved more than 
they destroyed and made their own additions to it. It is 
important to remember that Roman learning and law added 
to German liberty and virtue made a strong combination. 

The Spread of Christianity. One of the most powerful 
forces in rebuilding the civilization of the empire was the 
spread of Christianity. In connection with this work, we 
find the names of many great leaders in the Christian Church. 

St. Augustine and his Forty Monks. The story of 
St. Augustine and his band of forty monks will illus- 
trate the way in which the missionaries carried the Gospel 
of the Cross to the German tribes. Gregory was a pious 
monk who was afterwards known as Gregory the Great, 
on account of his notable work for the Christian Church. 
WTiile passing through the slave market of Rome one day, 
he saw some beautiful fair-haired boys being offered for 
sale. He asked who they were and where they came from 
and whether or not they were followers of Christ. He 
was told that they were Angles from England and that 
they and their people were still heathens. ''Not Angles, 
but angels," said Gregory, ''and the praise of God will 
yet be sung in their land, so that their fair souls may 
some day become angels in heaven." 

Some years later, this same Gregory became Pope of 
Rome and he still remembered the fair boys in the market- 



THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 



115 



place. He accordingly sent St. Augustine, another monk, 
with forty companions, as missionaries to the land of the 
Angles. This small band of pious men landed in the 
county of Kent in 597, where the Jutes, Hengist and 
Horsa, had landed nearly one hundred and fifty years be- 
fore. Now it so happened that the king of Kent was 
Ethelbert, and that his wife. Bertha, was a Frankish prin- 
cess and a Christian. 
So when St. Augus- 
tine sent word to 
the king that he 
had come to tell 
him and his people 
about Christ, Ethel- 
bert received him 
kindly, but insisted 
that the meeting be 
held in the open air, 
so that no harm 
could be done him 
by the magic of the 
strangers. The 
monks then came into the presence of the king and queen, 
chanting the Litany and bearing a large silver cross on high 
and a rude picture of Christ, painted upon a board. St. 
Augustine then explained the new religion to the king 
and his attendants. Ethelbert listened attentively to every 
word of the missionary and then said: ^'Fair are your 
words, but also new and strange. I may not forsake the 
gods of my fathers, but as for my people they may believe 
whatsoever they will and no man shall hinder them." 




Gregory and the English Slave 
Children 



116 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

St. Augustine and his companions then settled down in 
Canterbury to teach and to preach the Gospel of Christ. 
At first they used Queen Bertha's chapel, but later an old 
church of the Roman times was repaired and became the 
predecessor of the present famous Canterbury Cathedral. 
Other buildings were erected and the little religious colony 
spread and prospered. 

The monks lived an exceedingly simple life, preaching 
to all who cared to listen to them and giving no thought 
to the accumulation of riches. In the course of time, 
Ethelbert and thousands of his people were baptized into 
the Christian faith, and fifty years after the coming of 
St. Augustine almost all of England had been rescued 
from heathenism. "The civihzation, arts, and letters 
which had fled before the swords of the English conquerors 
returned with the Christian faith." 

Missionaries to the Germans. Other missionaries were 
doing the same kind of work among the Germans. In the 
course of time all of the Germans cast aside the worship 
of Thor and Woden for that of Jesus Christ. The recep- 
tion of these missionaries was not always so pleasant as 
that of St. Augustine and his companions. Sometimes 
they were put to death in a most painful and brutal way. 
This, however, did not check the progress of Christianity. 
It really seemed to hasten it. ''The blood of the martyr 
is the seed of the church." The murder of one missionary 
made his companions more eager than ever to spread the 
Gospel. 

The Cathedrals. One of the most beautiful results of 
the spread of Christianity over Europe was the building 
of the famous cathedrals of the Middle Ages. Americans 



w 






o 

B 

C 




I 



THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 



117 



traveling in Europe always make it a point to visit 
some of these great buildings. The Cologne Cathedral 
in Germany is one of the finest specimens of Gothic archi- 
tecture in the world. It was begun in the eleventh cen- 
tury and finished in 1880. Some of the cathedrals were 
Romanesque in stjde, with rounded arches and domes, 
while others were Gothic, distinguished by the sharp, 
pointed arch, the tall slender spire, 
and profuse ornamentation. The 
cathedral at Durham in England is 
a good example of the Romanesque. 

The Monasteries. The monks 
were religious bodies of men who 
lived together in monasteries. 
Sometimes they lived secluded 
from the outside world and again 
they mingled with the people. 
These monks lived under very 
strict rules of discipline and usually 
took vows of "poverty, chastity, 
and obedience." 

The monks were also the best 
farmers of their day. Some of 
of the order known 




Cologne Cathedral 



them, especially those 
as Benedictines, were hard workers. 
They cleared off the forests and drained the swamps and 
changed useless and desolate regions into beautiful and 
fruitful fields. 

The monks were also the most zealous missionaries of 
the time and had much to do with the conversion of the 
Germans. 

The Monks as Educated Men. The monks performed 



118 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

still another great service. In the quiet of their cloisters 
they preserved the learning of the Roman world. They, 
together with the priests, were the best educated men of 
the Middle Ages and the monastery became the center of 
education. Schools were established by the monks and 
many of these later became the famous universities of 
Europe. Printing was not known in the Middle Ages and 




Writing Room of a Monastery 

the monks preserved and multiplied books by copying 
them by hand. If they had not done this, probably most 
of the books written by the great Greek and Latin authors 
would never have come down to us. In doing this work, 
some of the monks became very skillful. They would 
take a sheet of parchment and line it with a straight- 
edge and awl. They would then print the copy, making 
each letter by hand, and with the greatest of care. A 
space was left at the head of each chapter and in this 
some monk having artistic abihty painted a picture or an 



THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 119 

ornamental letter, called an ^illuminated capital." The 
copying of an entire book was a very slow process and some- 
times occupied many months. The monks spent a certain 
time each da}^ in the writing room of the monastery. Here 
absolute silence was the rule. If a worker wanted some 
material, he made a sign to the master. No word could 
be spoken. 

In addition to all of the above, the monks cared for the 
sick and gave alms to the poor. In doing the work of 
charity, the women, who were called nuns, were also a 
great assistance. In some instances the monastery and 
the nunnery resembled our modern hospitals. One of the 
most famous monasteries in Europe was situated at St. 
Albans, about forty miles northwest of London. 

The Work of Charlemagne. Charlemagne, or Charles 
the Great, probably did more than any other one man to 
rebuild the civilization which the early Germans had torn 
down. Charlemagne was a tall, muscular man, who de- 
lighted in all forms of athletic exercises. He was a fine 
rider, a skillful hunter, and an expert swimmer. His 
great strength and good health undoubtedly helped him 
very much in governing his empire. 

You will recall that the Germans set aside the Emperor 
Augustulus and put Odoacer, one of their own chieftains, 
in his place. Now, Charlemagne may be looked upon as 
a successor of Odoacer. On Christmas Day, 800, he was 
crowned by the Pope as Emperor of the Roman Empire 
in the west, which was now in reality a German Empire. 
It was his ambition to bring all the German peoples to- 
gether into one great Christian empire, and he was re- 
markably successful in doing this. He did so much good 



120 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



that he was looked upon as the ''Hero of the Middle 
Ages." He improved the government, extended the 
church, and educated his people. He urged the clergy to 




Charlemagne Being Crowned Emperor 

be more studious themselves and also to gather together 
the children, both of serfs and freemen, and teach them 
to read. Large numbers of schools were established in 
this way and some of them became famous. He also 
established what was known as the ''School of the Palace," 



THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 



121 




Charlemagne 



122 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

for his own children and those of the nobles about the 
court. He placed an Englishman, named Alcuin, at the 
head of the school and imported distinguished men from 
Italy and other countries as teachers. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Compare the Roman Empire of Caesar's day with Charlemagne's 
Empire. 

2. Observe on your map the three divisions of the Empire. Of what 
importance has the middle division been in the recent European War? 

3. How did "the German really make the civiUzation of the empire 
in the end to be better than it was before " ? 

4. What do we owe to the church of the Middle Ages? 

5. The '* Book of Kells," made by the monks we have been studying 
about in this chapter, is said to be the most beautiful book in the world. 
Would you not hke to find out more about it? 

6. Who was the "Hero of the Middle Ages"? Why? 

7. What great purpose did the "Monastery Writing Room'* serve? 

8. Who said, "Not Angles, but Angels"? 

9. Who was St. Augustine? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Alcuin. arkwin Hengist. hen'gist 

Benedictine, ben'e-dik'tin Horsa. hor'sa 

Cologne, ko-lon' 



CHAPTER XIII 

ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 

We must now leave the story of the continent of Europe 
and go over to the British Isles and see what was taking 
place there. You will remember that the Angles, Saxons, 
and Jutes came from what is now the northern part of 
Germany and took possession of England, in the so-called 
Anglo-Saxon conquest. The native Britons were either 
put to the sword or driven over into Wales or Scotland 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 123 

or across to Ireland. A few may have been kept as 
laborers and household servants. 

These Germans did not invade Britain all at the same 
time, but came stringing along for a hundred and fifty 
years, a few boat-loads at a time. Each little company 
had its own chieftain or king, so that England was not 
under the rule of one head but of many heads. The 
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, however, were all Germans, 
and so after a time these petty kingdoms began to unite. 
At one time there were seven, known as the Heptarchy. 
A little later the number was reduced to three, and finally 
all England was united under one head. 

King Alfred. One of the earliest and greatest of Eng- 
land's kings was Alfred. Alfred was the Charlemagne of 
his country and is known in history as Alfred the Great. 
These two men, Charlemagne and Alfred, were the pillars 
of light in the Dark Ages. 

Alfred was born at Wantage, in England, in the year 
849. When a boy of seven, his father, who was king of 
England, took him on a visit to Rome. Here they re- 
mained a year and Alfred was greatly interested in every- 
thing that he saw. The city, with its great buildings, 
was much finer than anything which he had ever seen 
in his native land. Alfred and his father were also pre- 
sented to the Pope and received by him with great honor. 

Alfred was not a robust boy, but he was very fond of 
hunting and later became a valiant leader in war. He 
was also interested in books and learning, even when he 
was quite young. The story is told that his mother was 
accustomed to read poems to him and to his four brothers. 
They were greatly interested and the mother promised 



124 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



a beautiful set of the poems to the boy who should first 
learn to read. Alfred, though the youngest, won the 
prize. In those days, very few boys — or men for that 
matter — outside of the churches and monasteries could 
read or even write their own names. 

At the age of twenty-two, Alfred became king. He 
took his duties very seriously. It is said that he gave eight 

hours a day to sleep, food and 
exercise, eight hours to public 
business, and eight to religious 
and church work. By doing 
his work in this systematic 
way, he accomplished a great 
deal in his comparatively short 
lifetime. 

The Coming of the Danes. 
Alfred's great military work 
was the fighting of the Danes. 
For many years before the 
beginning of his reign, the 
Danes had been coming to 
England. They came in much 
the same way that the Angles, 
Saxons, and Jutes had come some time before. The 
home from which they came was also near the old home 
of the followers of Hengist and Horsa. The Danes, 
too, were very much like their predecessors. They were 
barbarians and worshipers of Thor and Woden, and 
being heathens, they had no respect for churches or mon- 
asteries. These they plundered on every hand and car- 
ried away gold and silver ornaments, costly vestments, 




King Alfred Learning to Read 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 



125 




Alfred the Great 

Alfred is looked upon as one of the greatest and best kings of England, 
one great wish was to be of service to his people. He succeeded. 



His 



126 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

and jeweled vessels. They also drove away flocks of 
sheep and took grain from the barns for their food. 

At the time that Alfred became king, these pagan 
Danes were threatening to take possession of all of England. 
Alfred took the field against them in person. He built 
boats and he has sometimes been called the '' Father of the 
British Navy." He also reorganized the land army, march- 
ing one half of the men against the enemy and leaving the 
other half to till the land. 

Alfred and the English fought bravely but the Danes 
drove them back and the good king was compelled to flee 
for refuge into the swamps of Somerset. Here he lived 
in the humble hut of a cowherd, unknown to the kind 
people who had given him protection. One day, it is said, 
the wife of the cowherd had put some loaves of bread to 
bake over the open fire before which Alfred sat, thinking 
of his sad plight and planning some method of escape 
for his people. The loaves began to burn and the odor 
of the burning bread caused the good woman to enter the 
room and upbraid Alfred for his carelessness. ^' You, man," 
she cried angrily, '^you will not turn the bread when you 
you see it burning, but you will be very glad to eat it 
when it is done." An old English writer puts the rebuke 
in this way: — 

''There, don't you see the cakes on fire? 
Then wherefore turn them not? 
You're glad enough to eat them 
When they are piping hot." 

The Battle of Wedmore (878). Maintaining this dis- 
guise for some time, Alfred finally completed his plans for 
the attack. He came out of his hiding place, and rally- 






pi 



td 
2 




ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 



127 



ing his men, defeated the Danes in the battle of Wedmore 
(Wet Moor). He was not able to drive them out of the 
country, however, and so he made a treaty with them, 
giving them all of the northern and eastern parts of 



^p^^l^^^H 


1 


■'*■>. •:»»i!>«i----'"' ■ 





King Alfred and the Burning Cakes 

England — a district which was later known as the 
Danelaw. 

Alfred*s Works of Peace. King Alfred, however, was 
greater in peace than he was in war and did many things 
to improve the condition of his people. In the first place, 
he revised the laws of England and made them more just 
and uniform than they had ever been before. ''Those 



128 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

which seemed to me the most right," he said in speaking 
of his laws, 'Hhose I have gathered together, and rejected 
the others." One of his laws was this: ''If any one dig 
a water pit, or open one that is shut up and close it not 
again, let him pay for whatever cattle may fall therein." 
Many of his laws, naturally enough, in this rough age, 
had to do with criminal offenses, but the penalties were 
merciful. His ambition was to have just laws and 
upright judges. He also saw to it that the laws were en- 
forced. It was said that if golden apples grew upon trees 
by the roadside during Alfred's reign, no one would dare 
to pick them. 

Alfred, like Charlemagne, was a devoted friend of edu- 
cation. He established many schools and brought in 
learned churchmen and others from Wales, France, and 
Germany to teach in them. One famous school was 
attached to his court for the benefit of the young nobles. 
One of the most noted teachers brought in from the 
outside was good Bishop Asser, who came from Wales. 
It was this bishop who taught Alfred himself to read 
Latin. 

Alfred was also active in religious matters. Churches 
and monasteries had suffered greatly at the hands of the 
pillaging Danes, and Alfred set about vigorously to repair 
the work of destruction. He rebuilt old churches and 
abbeys and constructed several new ones. 

He also had the missionary spirit. When Guthrum, 
king of the Danes, was defeated at Wedmore, Alfred 
compelled him to become a Christian. Guthrum was bap- 
tized and became the guest of Alfred for several weeks, 
during which time there was much feasting and rejoicing. 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 129 

Alfred as an Author. Alfred's services to literature 
were also notable. Indeed, Alfred's writings and trans- 
lations have been called the beginning of prose literature 
in England. He learned Latin from Bishop Asser long 
after he became king, and translated several books into 
English and wrote introductions to them. Among other 
works, he translated a '^ History of the World." This was 
a notable service to the Enghsh people who were not able 
to read Latin. But Alfred was extremely modest about it. 
He said, ^'Do not blame me if any know Latin better 
than I, for every man must say what he says and do what 
he does according to his ability." There was really no 
necessity for such an apology as that, since Alfred's 
English style was excellent. 

It is really difficult to stop telling about Alfred because 
he did so many good things. But what he was was just 
as important as what he did. He was a lovable, devout, 
simple, and sincere man. A recent writer says, ''In all the 
records of him that exist, there is not a single statement 
that puts a blemish upon his great and good character.'^ 
He died in the year 901, at the age of fifty- two, and now 
lies buried in Winchester Cathedral in southern England. 

Canute Becomes King (1017). We have noticed that 
Alfred defeated the Danes at Wedmore but that he was 
not able to expel them from England. According to a 
treaty which he made with them, they were to occupy 
the Danelaw and to acknowledge him as their overlord. 
This arrangement seemed to work well and the wild Danes 
were being tamed. They were adopting the manners and 
customs of civilized hfe and were becoming more like 
Alfred's people. 



130 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Things went well during the lifetime of Alfred, but one 
of his successors was a weak king, called Ethelred the 
Unready. In Ethelred's time, a great horde of Danes 
came and set about to take possession of the entire country. 
Ethelred did not care to fight as Alfred had done so he 
bought off the Danes; that is, he gave them money on 
condition that they leave England. They did leave En- 
gland according to their agreement — but they returned the 
very next year and in greater numbers than ever. The 
result was that not many years after, Ethelred and his 
family were compelled to flee from England and the Danes 
placed one of their number, King Canute, upon the throne. 

Canute was now king of England and Denmark at the 
same time and, although he had a very difficult task to 
perform, he did remarkably well. He ruled England for 
eighteen years in a kind and fatherly way and treated his 
English subjects just as well as he did the Danes. 

AVhile Canute was a just and fair man, however, he 
expected to be obeyed. It is said that on one occasion 
the king seated himself on the beach and noticed that the 
tide was rising and coming in his direction. He com- 
manded it to stop in these words: '^O Sea, I am thy lord. 
My ships sail over thee whither I will, and this land 
against which thou breakest is mine; stay thou thy waves, 
and dare not wet the feet of thy lord and master." But 
the tide came in and wet the royal feet and Canute was 
so chagrined that he vowed he would never wear the crown 
again. 

But while Canute was a wise and good king, his two 
sons who succeeded him were very different from their 
father and upon the death of the second of these, in 1042, 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 



131 



the Danish Hne came to an end. There seemed to be no 
other man of the Danish royal house who would make a 
good king and so the Witan, the assembly of the wise 
men, chose Edward, son of Ethelred the Unready, to be 
the king of England. 

The Northmen in America. We have noticed that the 




King Canute and His Courtiers 



Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Danes were swarming out of 
their homes and making new homes in other lands. 
While the Danes were taking possession of England, 
their kinsmen from the Scandinavian peninsula were also 
roving the seas. These sea-rovers are called Vikings, not 
because they were kings, but because they lived on a vik, 
or bay. They plowed the seas in long, swift, canoe-like 
boats with high prows, sometimes bearing the head of a 



132 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



dragon or other animal. Their boats were driven partly 
by sails and partly by oars. The shields of the rowers 
were hung over the side of the boat and the hardy Vikings 
sometimes escaped, after being defeated in a sea-fight, by 
swimming away under the protection of their huge shields. 
It was a band of these Vikings, usually called North- 




NoRSEMEN Landing in America 

men, or Norsemen, who came to America about five hun- 
dred years before Columbus did. Leif Ericson, known as 
Leif the Lucky, after stopping at Iceland and Greenland, 
where his people had already founded colonies, sailed to 
the coast of North America. He named the place ^'Vin- 
land," because of the abundance of wild grapes which he 
found there. Leif and his companions, about thirty in 
number, spent the winter in Vinland and founded a colony. 



THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 133 

Their colony was abandoned later and no trace of it has 
ever been found. In fact, its exact location is still a 
mystery, but it was probably somewhere within the pres- 
ent boundaries of Rhode Island or Massachusetts. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Why are Charlemagne and Alfred called "the pillars of light in the 
Dark Ages"? 

2. Could you see in Rome to-day any of the great buildings Alfred saw 
more than a thousand years ago? 

3. What do you think was Alfred's greatest service to England? 

4. Did Alfred do anything which is of benefit to us at the present time? 

5. Why do we not give credit to Leif Ericson and the Northmen for 
the Discovery of America, rather than to Columbus? 

6. Name some of the kings who succeeded Alfred. What did Alfred's 
influence and contact with the Pagan Danes do for this people? 

7. What was ''The Witan"? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Asser. as'er Wantage, won'taj 

Canute, kd-nut' Witan. wit'an 

Guthrimi. giith'riim 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 

We must now turn our attention to still another inva- 
sion from the north. While the Danes were swooping 
down upon England, other Northmen from the Scan- 
dinavian peninsula were ravaging the northern coast of 
France. Finally, these sea-rovers and pirates became 
bolder and in 845 they sailed up the Seine River and 
captured the city of Paris. They plundered and laid 
waste the country in exactly the same way that the Danes 



134 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

did in England. Finally, one of the kings of France, 
known in history as Charles the Simple, made a bargain 
with them very much like that which Alfred had made 
with the Danes, a few years before. He gave to the Norse 
leader, Rollo or Rolf, as he is sometimes called, a large 
tract of land in the northern part of France on condition 
that he and his men promise to aid him in war and also 
to accept the Christian rehgion. This was agreed to by 
the Northmen (912) and they settled down in their rich 
and pleasant country and became very prosperous. They 
also laid aside their barbarous ways and adopted the lan- 
guage and the refined manners and customs of the French. 
Their country took the name Normandy and they them- 
selves came to be called Normans. 

Edward *' The Confessor." Now let us go back to 
England for a moment. We have already noticed that 
Edward, the son of Ethelred the Unready, was elected 
king of England by the wise men to succeed the last of the 
Danish kings (1042). Edward was well liked by everyone, 
but he was not a strong king. He was thirty years of age 
when he came to the throne and twenty-five of those 
years had been spent in Normandy. He was really more 
of a Norman than an Englishman and he brought with 
him a host of relatives, noblemen, and other friends from 
Normandy to fill the high offices in England. 

While Edward was a timid man, he was also a very 
religious one and came to be known as Edward '^The Con- 
fessor," or Edward ''The Saint." The most notable thing 
which he did was the founding of Westminster Abbey in 
the city of London. The Abbey was a Christian church 
and monastery combined, and is now one of the most 



THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 



135 



famous buildings in the world. Edward lies buried in 
this Abbey, as do scores of England's most famous men, 
including Tennyson and Gladstone. 

The Norman Conquest (1066). After a mild reign of 
twenty-four years, Edward died in the year 1066. Upon 
his death-bed he 
recommended as his 
successor a great 
warrior and states- 
man, named Harold. 
Harold, however, 
was not a member 
of the royal family, 
and yet upon the 
following day, the 
Witan, or the wise 
men, met and elec- 
ted him King of 
England. 

William the Con- 
q u e r r . At this 
time, William was 
the Duke, or the 
leader of the Nor- 
mans. He was Edward the Confessor's first cousin and 
claimed that Edward had promised the crown to him 
upon his death. It is probable that Edward had done 
so, but the crown was really not his to give, and appar- 
ently Edward changed his mind before he died. William 
also claimed that Harold had promised to help him to 
become king of England. William was very angry when 




Westminster Abbey 



136 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 






EN (gland 3 

Oxfculi St. Albans *^^ 



he heard that Edward had died and that Harold had been 
made king. He was hunting when the news came to him, 
and he is said to have become "speechless with rage." 
He dropped his bow and made ready to lead an army 
into England. 

Harold knew. perfectly well that William would come to 
England to measure swords with him and so he placed an 

army on the southern coast 
of England to watch for his 
coming. Several months 
passed by and William failed 
to appear. Finally, when 
the harvest time came, Har- 
old's army, made up largely 
of farmers, went to their 
homes to gather in the grain. 
The coast was thus left 
without defenders, and when 
William finally appeared in 
September, he landed his 
men without opposition. 
Harold, however, came a 
Uttle later to meet him, and 
the armies met at Senlac, near Hastings, in southern 
England. The Normans, with their bows and arrows, 
were making ready to meet the Saxons with their battle- 
axes. When William was putting on his armor, he put 
the back side of it in front. His men were alarmed as 
they thought that a very bad omen. William, however, 
was equal to the occasion and remarked as he was 
making the change that he thought it a very good omen, 







Route of 
AVilliam the Conqueror ' 



Normandy and Southeast 
England in 1066 




< 
1-1 

m 






< 



THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 



137 



for on that day a Norman Duke was to be changed into 
an Enghsh king. 

The Battle of Senlac (October 14, 1066). The battle 
was long and hard. It lasted all day, with great loss of 
life. Harold was 
killed and the Eng- 
lish were put to 
flight. As soon as 
Harold lay dead 
upon the field, Wil- 
liam became the 
master of England 
and it is said that 
he sat quietly down 
among the dead on 
the battlefield to eat 
and drink. The vis- 
itor to this battle- 
field now sees the 
remains of what was 
once apparently an 
imposing building. 
These ruins are all 
that remain of an 

abbey built by William to commemorate his victory. The 
ruins stand on the spot where Harold fell. 

William Made King of England. After his great vic- 
tory at Senlac, William marched north, crossed the 
Thames River, and estabhshed his camp a few miles from 
the city of London. While here, noblemen, churchmen, 
and others came out from London, and invited him to 




William the Conqueror Reviewing His 
Troops 



138 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

come into the city and be crowned. It is needless to say 
that William accepted the invitation and entered the city. 
On Christmas Day, 1066, he was elected king by the 
Witan and crowned in the famous Abbey founded by 
Edward the Confessor. 

WiUiam the Conqueror thus became the founder of a 
new line of kings, known as the Norman kings. Many 
Normans also came to England with William and made 
their homes there. This brought about a number of 
changes in English life. New words were introduced into 
the English language and changes were made in the laws 
and in the church. The coming of the Normans was a 
good thing for England in many ways. The Normans 
were more refined and polished than the English, and the 
combination of ''Norman brightness and charm" added 
to ''English solidity and strength" proved to be a remark- 
ably good one. 

We should remember, however, that the main stream of 
civilization in England still continued to be English and 
not Norman. The civilization of England is a mixed one. 
The early Britons gave something to it; the Romans did 
also; the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes made their contribu- 
tion; the Danes made theirs; and, finally, came the 
Normans with their valuable contribution. The most im- 
portant of these elements, however, is the Anglo-Saxon, 
as we shall have occasion to see later. 

The Reign of William. Wilham was a very stern and 
harsh ruler but, on the whole, a very good one. A strong 
hand was needed in England at that time to keep the 
nobles in check. When William gave an order, he insisted 
upon being obeyed. "He was so harsh and cruel, '^ says an 



THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 



139 



old writer, ''that no one dared withstand him." In order 
to keep his people in subjection, he built fortresses in 
every town of importance, which he put in charge of his 
own men. The most noted of these is the famous Tower 
still standing in the city of London. 

** The New Forest." In some ways William was selfish 
and unjust. Next to war, he loved hunting, and in order 
to have large shoot- 
ing grounds, well 
stocked with game, 
he established what 
is known as ''The 
New Forest." This 
was in Hampshire in 
the southeastern 
part of England. 
Here, in order to 
make room for his 
deer and other game, 
he drove the people 
from their homes 
and destroyed their 
villages. He seemed to care more for his game than for 
his people, and it is said that "he loved the tall deer as 
though he had been their father." 

William the Conqueror died after ruling England for 
twenty-one years; and when he died it was found to be 
very difficult to purchase six feet of earth for him for a 
grave, because the people disliked him so much. 

William the Second. Wilham the Conqueror was suc- 
ceeded on the English throne by one of his sons, known as 




The Tower of London 

The London Tower was a kind of fortress and 
prison combined, located on the Thames River. 
Many noted men and women were imprisoned 
in this building. It is now used as a military- 
museum and as a barracks for the soldiers. 



140 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

William Rufus, or William the Red, on account of his big 
red face. This William was a good soldier and a skillful 
hunter and kept his nobles in fairly good order, but not 
much else that is good can be said of him. He was vain 
and extravagant and spent the people's money very freely 
for his own base pleasures. He was also cruel and his 
habits were not good; so that when the charcoal man 
brought his body in his cart from the New Forest to 
Winchester for burial, there were no tears shed over it. 

Henry II. Some of the early kings of England were 
good and some bad but one of them, Henry the Second 
(1154-1189), was particularly wise and just. Although 
Henry was a wise and good king, his last years were full 
of sadness. Men rebelled against him and his sons were 
among the number. When he found the name of John, 
his favorite son, at the head of the list of those arrayed 
against him he gave up the fight. ''Now let things go as 
they will," he said in sorrow, ''I care no more for myself 
or the world." A few weeks later he died — some said 
of a broken heart. 

King Richard the Lion-hearted. The good Henry was 
succeeded on the throne of England by his son Richard, 
the famous crusader, known in history as ''Richard the 
Lion-hearted." The new king was thirty-two years of 
age, tall, handsome, and kingly in bearing, and was soon 
looked upon as a national hero. He was a fine soldier, a 
good speaker, and a man of great muscular strength and 
courage. But he also had a terrible temper and was cruel 
and not always honest and truthful. 

In one sense, Richard's reign is not important but, in 
another sense, it is. Richard was king of England for 



THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 



141 



ten years, but spent only eight months of that time in 
England. The rest of the time he was on the continent 
of Europe or in the Holy Land leading Crusades by which 
it was hoped to wrest Jerusalem and the sepulchre of 
Christ from the hands of the infidel Turks. He cared 
little for England. There is an old saying that while the 
cat is away the mice will play. And so while Richard 
was away on the Crusades, 
or the "Holy Wars of the 
Cross," the people of En- 
gland began to think of their 
rights and liberties and to 
desire a part in the govern- 
ment. A few years later, as 
we shall soon see, these 
desires bore rich and abun- 
dant fruit. 

Richard had a wild and 
turbulent career. After 
squeezing all the money that 
he could out of his English 
subjects, he set out with 
the crusaders for the Holy Land; and while he did not 
succeed in capturing Jerusalem, his marvelous feats of 
strength and daring struck terror into the hearts of the 
people of the East. He became a kind of bogey-man and 
for centuries Arab mothers were accustomed to frighten 
their children into silence by saying, ''Hush, here comes 
King Richard." 

On his way home from Palestine, his ship was wrecked 
upon the coast of Italy. Richard then determined to 




Richard "The Lion Hearted," 
King of England 



142 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

continue his journey overland. He put on a disguise and 
announced himself as ^^Hugh, the merchant," wherever he 
went. He did this because he was afraid of falling into 
the hands of enemies. Finally, his identity became known 
and he was cast into prison where he remained for a year. 
He was at last released upon the payment of an enormous 
ransom by the people of England. 

He then returned home and was received with wild 
enthusiasm as a popular hero. But in two months he was 
off again fighting against the King of France and others. 
Finally the news came to him that a large amount of gold 
had been found buried on an estate in southern France. 
Richard immediately appeared upon the scene and de- 
manded a large share of it. Upon being refused, he laid 
siege to the castle and determined to take the money by 
force. One day, while riding his horse near the castle, 
he was struck by an arrow from the wall and mortally 
wounded. A short time after, and before the king died, 
the castle surrendered and Richard in a fierce outburst 
of temper, ordered that every man, woman, and child 
within the castle should be killed except the man who 
shot the fatal arrow. Calling this unfortunate man be- 
fore him, he asked, ''What have I done to you that you 
should kill me?" ''You have killed my father and my 
two brothers and have taken all their property," was the 
prompt reply. The man was set free. A short time after, 
Richard died and was buried at the side of his father 
in Westminster Abbey. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Read in any good encyclopedia a description of the Tower of London, 
or of Westminster Abbey, and report to the class. Try to make clear the 



THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH LIBERTY 143 

age, size, and historical importance of the Abbey. Be sure to tell the class 
about the coronation chair and the "Stone of Scone." Make clear how 
different the Abbey is from our churches. There in the Poet's corner is 
the bust of one of our great poets, one whom you know and love. See 
if you can find out who he is. 

2. Why was it necessary for William the Conqueror to use harsher 
methods than did Alfred? 

3. Why is the Norman Conquest a turning point in Enghsh history? 

4. Name some of the notable characteristics of Richard "The Lion- 
hearted." Why was he so called? 

5. Can you tell the difference between the Normans and the Danes? 
Were they relatives? What did each bring to England? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Arab, ^r'ab Scandinavian, skan'di-na'vt-dn 

Jerusalem. je-roo'sd-l6m Seine, san 



CHAPTER XV 

KING JOHN AND THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH 

LIBERTY 

As soon as the lion-hearted Richard had breathed his 
last, his younger brother, John, became king of England. 
It is not a pleasant task to tell the story of King John, as 
he was the worst king that ever sat on the English throne. 
John had been disloyal to his father, Henry, and, as we 
read in the last chapter, had brought that good king in 
sorrow to his grave; and when his brother Richard was 
fighting for the Holy Land, he tried to get his kingdom 
away from him. He had a bad reputation before he be- 
came king and, when he ascended the throne, he more than 
lived up to it. 

John had trouble with the king of France, the Pope, 
and almost everyone else that he had any dealings with. 



144 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

The king of France seized John's French possessions and 
when John called upon his barons to march with him to 
recover them, they refused to do so. 

John and the Pope quarreled over the appointment of 
an archbishop of Canterbury. John wanted one man and 
the Pope favored another. John was stubborn and the 
Pope placed England under the Interdict; that is, he 
prohibited all church services in that country. There 
was to be no church bell, no marriage, no funeral, no mass. 
He also declared John excommunicated, or cast out of the 
Roman Church. To cap the climax, he took the kingdom 
away from John and then gave it back to him on condi- 
tion that he pay the Pope one thousand pounds per year 
for it. John agreed to all of these humiliating conditions 
and the money was actually paid for a number of years. 

John kept on going from bad to worse, until finally the 
nobles and clergy thought the time had come to call, 
^'Halt." 

The Great Charter (1215). A large number of the lead- 
ing men of England had a meeting to talk over their 
grievances. They came to the conclusion that they would 
compel the king, by force of arms if necessary, to govern 
England according to the old and historic laws. The 
demand was made and John refused it without considera- 
tion. His opponents, however, were not to be put aside. 
They marched upon London, gathering strength as they 
went, and when they reached that city, they found the 
gates thrown open to them. The nobles, clergy, and 
common people — all but a few personal friends — had 
deserted John and he was compelled much against his will 
to accept the terms submitted to him. 



3 



> 



Q 



g 

> 




THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH LIBERTY 145 

John met his people on a small island in the Thames 
River, near Runnymede, and signed the Great Charter 
(Magna Charta) on the fifteenth of June, 1215. This 
Charter was a very bitter pill for the king to swallow and 
it is said that John was speechless with rage and tore his 
hair when about to sign it. Another account says that he 
expressed his feelings by rolling on the floor and gnawing 
a stick. 

This Charter is the most important document in English 
history and Englishmen prize it greatly. It is as important 
to the English as our Declaration of Independence is to us. 
In fact, it is a sort of Declaration of Independence and it 
has been called ^Hhe corner-stone of English history." 

There is nothing new in the Great Charter. It simply 
contained a statement of old rights and liberties. Some 
of the kings, and John in particular, seemed to forget that 
the people had any rights and the Great Charter proved 
to be an excellent reminder. Some of its more important 
provisions may be stated as follows: 

I. No tax shall be levied in the kingdom without the 
consent of the people. 

II. No one shall be imprisoned or banished or pun- 
ished in any way, unless convicted by a jury of his fellow- 
citizens. 

III. To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny or 
delay right or justice. 

These provisions meant that in the future, when a king 
wanted money, he would have to ask the people for it 
and not simply levy a tax as John and Richard had done 
without consulting anybody. 

Some kings also threw men into prison and kept them 



146 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

there for years without any trial at all, or, in some in- 
stances, after a very unfair trial. The Great Charter now 
provided that a man accused of crime should have a speedy 
trial before a jury and should not be compelled to bribe 
the judges in order to escape unjust punishment. 
, John, of course, never had any thought of living up to 
the Charter and said so plainly a short time after signing 
it. He knew that he would have to fight, so he hired 
some soldiers to fight against his own people. Defeat was 
staring John in the face when his end came. The exact 
cause of his death is not known. It may be that a large 
quantity of peaches and beer which he consumed did not 
agree with the royal stomach. Some say that he was 
poisoned by an enemy. However, the cruel and despotic 
John passed off the scene and very few tears were shed. 

The House of Commons (1265). When John died, he 
had a little son named Henry, who was nine years of age. 
This little lad became king of England and was crowned 
Henry the Third. During the early part of his reign, 
of course, he had no part in the government, but when he 
became a man, he wanted to have his own way about 
everything. He resembled his father in many ways. He 
was a chip off the old block and did not seem to learn 
anything from the disastrous experiences of his father. 

He was more French than English and loved to have 
foreigners in office and about his court. He also lavished 
money and favors upon them. This money he wrung 
from the people in the form of taxes. There was a clause 
against this in the Great Charter which he had taken 
a solemn oath to uphold. But that did not seem to worry 
Henry very much. 



THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH LIBERTY 147 

Henry was also more obedient to the Pope of Rome 
than most of his people wished to see him. They pre- 
ferred to be more independent. 

Simon de Montfort. Just at this time, a great man 
appeared as the champion of the people against the king. 
This man was Simon de Montfort, sometimes called Earl 
Simon. Earl Simon was a member of an old French 
family which had come to England some time before, 
and he had married the sister of the king. He was 
called Simon the Righteous. An old English ballad runs, 
'^He hates the wrong, he loves the right." Earl Simon 
had his faults, many of them, but he was a brave man 
and a lover of liberty and a fine soldier. 

When King Henry became unbearable, the people tried 
to put some restrictions upon him as they had upon his 
father at Runnymede. It was all to no avail, however, 
so the noble Earl raised an army and took the field against 
him. The battle was fought in southeastern England. 
Earl Simon was victorious and captured the king and the 
entire royal family. 

With the king in his power, Simon de Montfort had 
control of the entire government. He made one change 
which proved to be of great importance. The Great 
Council which represented the people in the government 
was composed up to this time of nobles and clergymen, 
exclusively. Earl Simon said that the common people, 
the plain citizens without titles, should also have a voice 
in the government. And so he called a meeting of Par- 
liament, as the Great Council was now coming to be 
called. To this ParHament he invited the nobles, the 
clergy, and the common people as well. This was the be- 



148 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



ginning of the House of Commons in England (1265) and 
Simon de Montfort was its founder. 

Parliament. The word ^^ parliament" comes from a 
French word which means to speak. It therefore means 
a place where things are spoken about or discussed and 




Houses of Parliament 

This beautiful building covers eight acres on the banks of the Thames River 
in London. It is the home of England's law-making body. 

debated. When the commoners first appeared in Parlia- 
ment, they were snubbed and scoffed at and did not have 
much influence. At first, they sat in the same room and 
debated matters of government with the nobles and clergy. 
But, after a time, they sat in a chamber by themselves and 
came to be called the House of Commons, while the cham- 
ber made up of the nobles and clergy came to be called 
the House of Lords. These two Houses now constitute 



ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 149 

the governing body of England and correspond to our 
Congress, which also consists of two houses, the House of 
Representatives and the Senate. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. We in the United States take it for granted that the people shall 
rule. You see in this chapter at what cost this right was maintained, which 
to these people was as dear as it is to us. You know, of course, that this 
struggle of the people is an old, old one and that it is still going on in many 
countries to-day. 

2. What effect do you think this successful resistance by the people 
of England had, when at a later date their rights were seriously threatened? 

3. When another tyrannical King of England trespassed on the sacred 
rights of the EngUsh Colonies in North America they resisted and won 
their independence. This was the beginning of the United States. 

4. Is the Magna Charta of any importance to Americans? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Parliament, par'li-ment Simon de Montfort. si'mon demont' 

Runnymede. run'i-med fort 

Thames, temz 



CHAPTER XVI 
ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

The Romans loved the city; the Germans the open 
country. While the Romans had possession of the em- 
pire, it was dotted from end to end with cities and towns. 
The Romans loved city life and found their greatest en- 
joyment and culture within city walls. 

When the Germans overran the empire, however, a 
great change took place. Many of the cities were de- 
stroyed during the German invasions and many more were 
abandoned and left to tumble into ruins. A few great 



150 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

cities, like London, continued to the present day and, as 
civilization advanced, new cities were built or old ones 
were revived. Near the close of the Middle Ages, the 
city was an important factor in the civilization of the time. 

The City of the Middle Ages. The city was the center 
of the best civilization and the greatest activity. In the 
first place, it was the home of art. Here was to be found 
the best in architecture, sculpture, and painting. The city 
seemed almost like a fairy land, with its gild halls, palaces, 
cathedrals, and ornamental gateways. 

The city was also prominent in trade and commerce 
with distant points. Such cities as Antioch, Genoa, and 
Venice were extremely important commercial centers. 
And it should be remembered that commerce consisted of 
an interchange of ideas as well as an interchange of goods. 

The city also, in connection with the university, became 
the home of education. Oxford and Cambridge are En- 
gland's oldest and most famous universities. Oxford was 
probably founded in the reign of Henry the Second, to 
whom we have already referred, and is now one of the most 
noted institutions of learning in the world. It is made 
up of twenty-four or twenty-five different colleges, situated 
in the beautiful and interesting old city of Oxford. The 
colleges were founded at different times, some of them 
being added in quite recent years. Each college has its 
own courses of study, its own athletic teams and boat 
crews, and maintains its independent individuality in many 
ways. The athletic contests between Oxford and Cam- 
bridge Universities are among the great events of the year. 
The teams competing in these contests are made up of the 
picked men from the different colleges. 



ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



151 



The city of the Middle Ages was small as compared with 
that of the present day. London had twenty-five thou- 
sand people, while the ordinary city had from fifteen 
hundred to four thousand. Some of these, like the 
famous old city of 
Chester, near Liver- 
pool, were very 
picturesque, as they 
nestled behind their 
strong walls. 

The Gilds. The 
most important or- 
ganization of the 
medieval city was 
the gild. The Mer- 
chant Gild was made 
up of merchants, 
land owners, trad- 
ers, and others, en- 
gaged in similar pur- 
suits. The purpose 
of the gild was to 
promote the welfare 
of its members along 
all Hues. The gilds sometimes did works of charity. 




A Section of a Medieval City 



One 



of the laws or rules of the gild was this: ''If any of the 
brethren shall fall into poverty or misery, all the brethren 
are to assist him by common consent out of the chattels of 
the house or fraternity, or of their proper own." It was 
also provided that when a member died, his fellow gildsmen 
should ''bear the body and bring it to the place of burial.'' 



152 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Another kind of gild was the Craft Gild. These craft gilds 
were made up of such craftsmen as the millers, bakers, shoe- 
makers, dyers, skinners, weavers, and the like. Sometimes 
there were as many as fifty different kinds of craft gilds 
in the same city. You have probably come to the con- 
clusion by this time that these gilds were somewhat like 
the labor unions of the present day. They regulated wages 
and the hours of labor. They prohibited working at night 
in certain crafts and devoted large sums to the work of 
charity among their members. 

While the craft gilds corresponded to the labor unions of 
the present day, the merchant gilds resembled, to some 
extent, the employers', merchants', and manufacturers' 
associations of the present time. All of these different 
kinds of gilds attempted at times to gain control of the 
governments of the cities and they were able to do so in 
many instances. 

The Village. The village was a collection of houses 
somewhat smaller than the city or town. The houses 
were usually poor and mean. Sometimes they had only 
one room and were without proper light, heat, or ventila- 
tion. In consequence there was much disease among the 
people. Sometimes the cattle were housed under the same 
roof with the family. The people who lived in these vil- 
lages cultivated the land on the outskirts or pastured their 
cattle there. Some of the land was owned by individuals 
and some of it in common — as our parks are owned 
to-day. The people were not very good farmers and 
sometimes raised only eight or nine bushels of wheat or 
rye per acre, where thirty or more bushels are raised 
to-day. 



ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



153 



Feudalism is the name which has since been given to 
a peculiar system of land-holding of those days. A noble- 
man or lord owning or controlling a large tract of land let 
it out to farmers for cultivation. These farmers paid rent 
for the use of the land and this rent was often paid in the 
form of military service; that is, the farmer fought in the 




A Feudal Castle 

army of his overlord for a certain number of days each 
year. The feudal lord, as the overlord was sometimes 
called, also exercised control over the men under him and 
in many instances actually governed them. 

The Castle. In the center of a large plantation, and 
often upon some sightly hill-top, the castle of the feudal 
lord was built. These castles, in some respects, resembled 
fortresses and were very strongly built for purposes of 
defense. They were made of stone and the walls were 



154 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

sometimes several feet in thickness. The donjon or keep 
was the strongest part of the castle and here the defenders 
retired when hard pressed. Gunpowder would, of course, 
have shattered these walls like egg-shells, but the bow 
and the spear could do little against them. Around the 
castle was the moat or wide ditch, filled with water and 
spanned by a drawbridge. This drawbridge could be 
pulled up against the side of the castle in case of attack. 
The windows and doors were rather easily defended, as 
they were mere slits in the wall. The tourist who travels 
in Europe at the present day views with interest the ruins 
of many ivy-mantled castles and towers of the Middle 
Ages and listens with rapt attention to the blood-curdling 
tales of the fierce fights which took place about them. Sir 
Walter Scott, in the beautiful story entitled ^^Ivanhoe," 
gives us a good picture of the medieval castle and its 
surroundings. 

Amusements. The nobles who lived in these castles 
were very fond of hunting and hawking. When not 
fighting, they were very likely to be in pursuit of game. 
The greyhound and the falcon, or hawk, were in almost 
constant use. Ladies were also devoted to hawking. 
There were not nearly so many amusements as we have. 
Chess and backgammon were played. Strolling minstrels 
often helped to pass the long evenings in winter with their 
songs and tales. But most of the amusements that we 
enjoy to-day were unknown then. 

Chivalry. Chivalry was called ^Hhe flower of feudalism." 
The great lords who lived in these castles usually belonged 
to an order known as the Knights. These knights were 
bold and brave and true; and chivalry came to mean 



ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



155 



gallantry. The education of the boy for knighthood began 
at the age of seven. From seven to fourteen he was called 
a page, and from fourteen to twenty-one, a squire. The 
lord of the castle gave the boy a training in military affairs 
and the ladies instructed him in religion and the rules of 
pohte behavior. The squire attended his lord in battle, 




The Great Hall of a Medieval Castle 

Banquets and entertainments of various kinds were held in. this, the principal 
room of the castle. 

carried weapons and armor for him, and even took a part 
in the fight if his master needed his help. At twenty-one, 
the squire became a knight. The ceremony used in con- 
ferring knighthood was solemn and impressive. The 
young man prepared himself by a long fast and medita- 
tion. He then listened to a sermon on the duties and 
obligations of the knight. Then kneeling, he took a vow 
to defend the church, women, the weak, and those in 
distress. Armor was then given him and his sword was 



156 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

buckled on. Then the lord who had charge of the cere- 
mony struck the lad upon the shoulder with the flat side 
of his sword and said, ''In the name of God, of St. Michael, 
and of St. George, I dub thee knight; be brave, bold, and 
loyal." 

The knight was expected to be "gentle, brave, courteous, 
truthful, pure, generous, hospitable, faithful to his engage- 
ments, and ever ready to risk life and limb in the cause of 
religion and in defense of his companions in arms." Do 
you recall the story of Lancelot, the ideal knight? 

The standard of knighthood was very high and some 
failed to live up to their vows. In such cases, the false 
knight was put through a process, known as the " cere- 
mony of degradation." His spurs were cut from his boots 
with a heavy axe, his sword was broken, and the tail of 
his horse was cut off. He was then dressed in the clothes 
of the grave, the funeral service was read over him, and 
he was solemnly declared to be "dead to the honors of 
knighthood." 

The Tournament. When the knights were not fighting 
for religion or defending their ladies, they pined for amuse- 
ment. This was found in the tournament — which was 
not much like the tennis tournament, for example, of the 
present day. The tournament of the Middle Ages was a 
sham battle between knights, mounted on horses, and 
armed with blunt swords or pointless spears. The oppos- 
ing sides rushed at each other and tried to unhorse their 
opponents and break their dummy weapons. A joust was 
a contest between two knights. The contest took place 
in the "Lists" or large open space, surrounded by immense 
throngs of spectators. The attendance at some of the 



ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 157 

tournaments where famous knights fought was very large 
and sometimes noted knights came from foreign countries 
to ''enter the Lists." The prize was often a simple gar- 
land or a wreath of flowers. 
At times the tournament was brutal enough, but it was 




A Tournament 

a vast improvement upon the gladiatorial and other con- 
tests of Rome. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 
1. This is what King Arthur says of the oath he required of his Kiiights: 

"I made them lay their hands in mine and swear 
To reverence the King, as if he were 
Their conscience, and their conscience as their King, 
To break the heathen and uphold the Christ, 
To ride abroad redressing human wrongs. 
To speak no slander, no, nor listen to it, 
To honor his own word as if his God's, 



158 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

To lead sweet lives in purest chastity, 
To love one maiden only, cleave to her. 
And worship her by years of noble deeds, 
Until they won her." 

Tennyson's " Guinevere " in Idylls of the King. 

What changes would you make in this to meet modern conditions, so 
that it might well be made the guide to conduct for true gentlemen 
to-day? 

2. Select a site in your neighborhood for a castle. Then read a good 
description of some castle and reconstruct it on your site. 

3. Why do we not have feudal castles in the United States? 

4. Compare our modern cities and villages with those of the Middle 
Ages. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Antioch an'tl-ok Tournament, toor'nd-ment 

Genoa. j6n'6-d 



CHAPTER XVII 

PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 

The early Christians thought it a pious privilege to 
make pilgrimages. The object of the journey might be 
the shrine of some saint, or, better still, the tomb of Christ 
in Palestine. Great benefits were expected from these 
visits. The weary pilgrim sought his souFs salvation in 
this way and, in some cases, he expected to be cured of 
disease. Sometimes he traveled, staff in hand, many long 
and weary miles through hostile peoples before reaching 
his destination. He then spent several days in prayer at 
the shrine of the saint, made an offering of money, and 
then set out upon his homeward journey, blessed with a 
peace of mind. Sometimes these pilgrims walked or rode 
on horseback overland and at times a passing vessel car- 



PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 159 

ried them a part of the way. They were often on the 
road for months at a time. 

Saint Thomas of Canterbury. A good example of the 
pilgrimages were those which were made to the shrine of 
St. Thomas of Canterbury. St. Thomas was the most 
famous churchman of his day. He was well educated and 
took a prominent part in the government of England be- 
fore becoming an archbishop. A very interesting story is 
told about this good man. Henry II was very fond of his 
able assistant and gave him lands and gifts of various kinds. 
At this time, Thomas showed few symptoms of piety or 
religion, but Uved in a worldly and showy way. 

After a time, King Henry wanted to make Thomas 
Archbishop of Canterbury — a position which would place 
him at the head of the church in England. Thomas did 
not want the position and declined it, but Henry insisted 
and Becket, as he is sometimes called, was ordained a 
priest and became the Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Thomas now changed his mode and manner of life com- 
pletely. He put aside worldly things and became a pious 
and devout churchman. Soon a conflict arose between 
the archbishop and the king. Thomas was the champion 
of the church and thought that it should be independent 
of the government. Henry, on the other hand, said that 
he, as king, should rule over the church as well as the 
state. The king and the archbishop were both very posi- 
tive men and the quarrel between them became very 
bitter. Thomas was afraid of being murdered and fled 
to France. Later he returned to England and took up 
his fight anew. 

Finally, the king, in a fit of anger, exclaimed, ''What 



160 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



cowards have I brought up in my house that not one of 
them will rid me of this low-born priest!" His men took 
him at his word, although Henry did not intend that they 
should. Henry was in Normandy when he gave vent to 
this outburst of temper and four knights who heard it 




The Murder of St. Thomas a Becket 

secretly vowed to put the archbishop out of the way. 
They immediately crossed over to England by different 
routes and had another meeting there. With a small 
group of followers, they went to Canterbury and killed 
the archbishop with their swords, on the very steps of the 
altar in his own cathedral. 

A tremendous outcry went up from all Europe. The 
king was sorry for his hasty remark and shut himself up 



PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 161 

for several days, refusing to see any one or to eat food 
of any kind. The Pope also was shocked and went into 
seclusion for a time. The people mourned for Thomas 
as a martyr to the cause of the church and he was imme- 
diately put upon the list of English saints. He was 
buried at Canterbury and thousands of pious people made 
pilgrimages each year to worship at his tomb. The great 
poet, Chaucer, in his ''Canterbury Tales," written two 
hundred years after the murder of Becket, relates in an 









Jtarf^- ■'" * 




w^s^a^s^^ c„ . . ■' 



Pilgrims Going to Canterbury 



interesting way the various stories which different pilgrims 
told while on their way to Canterbury. 

But if people went by thousands to worship at the 
shrine of St. Thomas, how much stronger would be 
the yearnings of pious Christians to kneel and pray at the 
tomb of the Savior, himself. All through the Middle 
Ages, such pilgrimages were made to the Holy Land. 
Sometimes the pilgrim went by himself and sometimes 
great crowds went together. In 1064, seven thousand 
people, led by an archbishop, went to Jerusalem in a 
single company. 

The Crusades. For several centuries, Syria and the 



162 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Holy Land were in the possession of the Arabs. These 
men were comparatively mild and had some sort of respect 
for holy things and sacred places. As a consequence, the 
pilgrims to the Holy Land were well treated and were 
allowed to come and go in peace; but in the eleventh 
century a great change took place. The wild Turks from 
Asia overran Syria. These men were somewhat like 
Attila and his terrible Huns and had no respect for the 
Christian religion or for civilization. They took a fiend- 
ish delight in ruining holy places. Christian churches 
were burned or turned into stables and the pilgrims were 
mocked and persecuted at every turn. 

Just at this time, also, a change came over the church 
itself. In the early years the leaders of the church had 
preached the Gospel of peace; now, the leaders were 
telling the faithful to buckle on their swords and fight 
for their religion. So when the pilgrims returned from 
the Holy Land, with stories of abuse and persecution, 
and a recital of the ruin of holy places, the cry 
went up that the sepulchre of Christ should be rescued 
from the hands of these awful Turks. At that moment, 
the peaceful pilgrim became a w^arrior and the pilgrimages 
became crusades. The pious people of the time, as they 
read their Bibles, saw that the Hebrews waged wars 
against the heathen at the command of Jehovah. Why 
then was it not their pious duty also to turn their swords 
against the heathen? 

There was, as we have said, great indignation in Europe 
as the pilgrims returned from the Holy Land and told of 
their sufferings at the hands of the Turks. Pope Urban 
II had long meditated over the injuries and insults which 



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PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 163 

had been heaped upon the Christians and came to the 
conclusion that it was not right that the tomb of the 
Savior should be in the hands of cruel infidels who had 
no respect for his teachings. His soul was much troubled 
and he called a meeting at Clermont in France (1095) 
to see what could be done. 

The Pope addressed the meeting and made a most 
wonderful speech in which he depicted the cruel wrongs 
and urged his hearers to act at once. This speech has 
been called ^^one of the greatest triumphs of human 
oratory.^' ^^When Jesus Christ summons you to his de- 
fense," he exclaimed, '4et no base affectation detain you 
in your homes; whoever will abandon his house, or his 
father or his mother, or his wife, or his children, or his 
inheritance, for the sake of His name, shall be recom- 
pensed a hundred fold and shall possess life eternal." 
At this point, the enthusiasm of the vast throng burst 
all bounds and a great shout went up from all sides, ^'It 
is the will of God! It is the will of God!" Men fas- 
tened crosses upon their clothing to indicate the fact that 
they had enlisted in the ^^Holy Wars of the Cross." Here, 
then, at Clermont was started a movement known as the 
Crusades, which continued for two hundred years. 

The First Crusade (1096). But Palestine was thou- 
sands of miles away — a long, difficult, and dangerous jour- 
ney — and men could not set out without making some 
preparation. 

Peter the Hermit. And just at this point, we must 
stop for a moment to tell the story of Peter the Hermit. 
It was once thought that this Peter, a pious monk, was 
the man who started the whole crusade movement. We 



164 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



know now that he was the preacher, but not the originator , 
of the Crusades. It was said that Peter, a native of 
France, went to Palestine on a pilgrimage and saw with 




Petek the Hermit Preaching the Crusade 



his own eyes the persecutions of the western pilgrims. 
He came back with his soul on fire, went to the Pope, and, 
falling upon his knees before him, begged permission to 
preach a crusade against the Turks. The Pope gave his 
consent and Peter went about in fields and streets and 



PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 165 

along country roads — everywhere he could get people to 
listen to him — and delivered his message. His figure 
became a famihar one, as, clad in his long, monkish robe, 
he rode upon his ass and held the crucifix on high. His 
preaching reached men's hearts. It had an electrical effect 
and men by tens of thousands enlisted for the march on 
Palestine. 

The Pope also preached the crusade and promised that 
those who took part in it should be richly rewarded. He 
said that a man who was really sorry for his sins should 
have 'Hhe joy of eternal life, even if he died before the 
army reached the Holy City." 

Preparations were being made for this First Crusade, 
but things did not move rapidly enough to suit the men 
who had been inflamed by the preaching of Peter. They 
became impatient and could be restrained no longer. 
Consequently a great horde of them — men, women, and 
children, some say eighty thousand — started off under 
the leadership of Peter the Hermit and a wandering knight, 
known as Walter the Penniless. They started overland 
for Constantinople, going through Germany and Hungary. 
They were entirely unprepared for such an expedition as 
this and thousands of them died by the roadside of hunger, 
disease, and exposure. Only a small remnant reached Con- 
stantinople and these were made short work of by the 
Turks. This was the sad ending of the ill-fated First 
Crusade. 

In the meantime, preparations for the real Crusade were 
pushed with vigor. In 1099, about three hundred thou- 
sand men turned their faces towards the East. They 
suffered terribly. About one half of their number perished 



166 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



on the way. The survivors, however, pushed on to Jeru- 
salem. They went into raptures of joy at the first sight 
of the Holy City. They knelt down, kissed the earth, 

and took off their 
shoes, recognizing 
the fact that they 
were treading on 
holy ground. Then, 
advancing with bare 
feet and uncovered 
heads, they sang 
''Jerusalem, lift up 
thine eyes, and be- 
hold the Uberator, 
who comes to break 
thy chains." An at- 
tack followed and 
the city fell. The 
Turks were slaugh- 
tered without 
mercy. One of the 
crusaders wrote a 
letter home and de- 
scribed what took 
place as follows: 




The War Machinery of the Crusaders 
Gunpowder was not known at this time. In- 
stead of cannon the crusaders used great ma- 
chines, like huge bows worked by windlasses, 
to hurl rocks against the walls of fortified 
towns and castles. 



''And if you desire to know what was done with the enemy 
who were found there, know that in Solomon's Porch and 
in his Temple, our men rode in the blood of the Turks up 
to the knees of their horses." 

The Kingdom of Jerusalem. Now that Jerusalem was 
taken, it was necessary to set up over it a new form of 



PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 167 

government. This was done by the crusaders, and God- 
frey, a sincere and devoted knight, was placed at its head. 
Godfrey was called 'Hhe Defender of the Holy Sepulchre," 
as he refused to be called king. ^'I will never wear a 
crown of gold in this Holy City," he said, "where my 
Lord and Master wore a crown of thorns." Then the 
crusaders broke ranks and scattered. Some of them 
remained in the East, while others returned by many 
different routes to their homes in Europe. 

The Third Crusade. In less than a century, Jerusalem 
was again lost to the Christians. The city was captured 
by Saladin, the famous Sultan of Egypt, in 1187. The 
news of the fall of Jerusalem rang throughout Europe like 
a bugle call to arms. The result of this was the Third 
Crusade — in some respects the most famous of them all. 
This crusade was led by three great men — Philip, the 
King of France, Frederick, Emperor of Germany, and 
Richard the Lion-hearted, King of England. Nothing of 
importance was accomplished. Numerous misfortunes be- 
fell the expedition. The Germans took the overland route 
and their Emperor was drowned, while attempting to 
cross a swollen stream. Most of the Germans became 
disheartened and returned to their homes. The French 
and English took the sea route and after two years of 
fruitless fighting about Jerusalem, they too gave up in 
despair. The lion-hearted Richard, as we have already 
seen, had many mishaps while on his way home. 

The Children's Crusade (1212). The height of folly in 
the whole crusading movement, however, was reached in 
the Children's Crusade. A French peasant boy, named 
Stephen, twelve years of age, got it into his head that he 



168 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

was called by God to lead a crusade of young children 
against the infidel Turk. He sounded his call and many 
small boys and some girls enlisted under his banner. 
Some of the older people thought that the project was all 
right and quoted the Scriptures to the effect that "a. 
little child shall lead them." Others thought that the 
whole thing was inspired by the devil. At all events, a 
band of German children, estimated at from twenty 
thousand to forty thousand, gathered together and marched 
over the Alps to Italy. Nothing could hold them back. 
^'Even bolts and bars," says an old writer, ''could not 
hold them." 

These children, most of them no older than Stephen 
himself, marched along the shores of Italy, expecting to 
find a pathway to Jerusalem miraculously opened to them. 
They expected the sea to part for their passage, as the 
Red Sea had parted for the passage of the children of 
Israel out of Egypt. No such pathway appeared, and a 
large part of the little ones either feU by the wayside or 
died from the hardships of the march. A sorry and weary 
little band reached Rome and made a call upon the Pope. 
The Pope received them in a very kind and fatherly way. 
He saw the folly of the whole attempt and persuaded the 
children to return to their homes and to set out again 
upon their crusade after they became men. Such was the 
fate of the German boys and girls who embarked in this 
crusade. 

The French children, about thirty thousand in number, 
met at Marseilles with Stephen himself as their leader. 
The youthful captain* rode in great pomp in a chariot, 
surrounded by his body-guard. The poor little ones knew 



PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 



169 



nothing of the difficulties of the task which they were 
about to undertake. They had no idea of the distance to 
Jerusalem and whenever they came within sight of a city, 
the cry went up, 
^'Is that Jerusa- 
lem?" 

They were also 
led to think that 
when they got to 
Marseilles, the sea 
would open and per- 
mit them to pass 
through dry shod. 
But it did not and 
many of them re- 
turned to their 
homes. Some five 
thousand of them 
started on ship- 
board, however, for 
the Holy Land. 
There happened to 
be two traveling 
merchants in Mar- 
seilles at the time and these men offered to take the children 
by boat to their destination. Five thousand of them were 
packed in seven small ships, but they never reached Pales- 
tine. A part of them went to the bottom of the sea when 
two of the ships were wrecked in a storm, and those who sur- 
vived were sold as slaves in Alexandria and other cities. And 
so the Children's Crusade ended in disaster and suffering. 




The Children's Crusade 



170 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

These Crusades were spread out over a period of two 
hundred years. There were four great Crusades and as 
many more of lesser importance. Religion was, of course, 
the main-spring of the whole movement, but many en- 
listed for other reasons. The restless knights loved to 
fight, and adventure and danger were the spice of their 
lives. Some, too, joined the Crusades on account of the 
wealth which they hoped to secure by plundering the 
heathen. Serfs joined for their freedom, debtors to be 
free from debt, and criminals to escape punishment for 
their offenses. But on the whole, religion was the motive 
which sent wave after wave of the population of Europe 
against the East. 

The Results of the Crusades. Now, what about the 
results of the Crusades? Were they successful or not? 
Did they accomplish anything of real and lasting value? 
In the first place, it must be admitted that the Crusades 
were a failure in so far as their immediate object was 
concerned. They failed in their attempt to snatch the 
Holy Sepulchre from infidel hands. The crusaders did, 
of course, get possession of Jerusalem but they soon lost 
it and never got it back. In fact, Jerusalem has remained 
in the possession of the Turks to this day. From that 
standpoint, the Crusades were a failure. 

In an indirect way, however, untold benefits resulted 
from them. In the first place, the people of the East — 
aside from the Turks — were more cultured and learned 
than those of the West and so the Crusades were important 
in an educational way. Up to this time, the people of the 
West had not traveled very much. As a rule, a man lived 
and died in the village or hamlet in which he was born and 



PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 171 

knew little or nothing of the great outside world. Now 
hundreds of thousands of men traveled thousands of miles 
and came into contact with a civilization higher and better 
than their own. And they profited by it, too. 

They brought many new ideas home with them. One 
of the most useful of these was the Arabic system of 
notation, which soon displaced the more clumsy Roman 
system. If you were a bookkeeper, how would you like to 
keep your accounts in Roman numerals? They brought 
home with them the use of the cross-bow, the drum and 
the trumpet, and such fruits and vegetables as the apricot, 
watermelon, and garlic. They also learned the use of the 
windmill and set up mills in large numbers all over 
Europe, but more particularly in Holland where they were 
used to pump the water out of low places which were 
needed for cultivation. They returned with a taste for 
spices, silks, wines, dyestuffs, glassware, and the fine 
jewels of the East. They also began to decorate their 
homes in imitation of the luxurious ones which they had 
seen in the East. In fact, the Crusades increased the 
interest in art of all kinds. Constantinople was the home 
of much of the art of the Eastern world and these crusaders 
saw art treasures such as they had never seen before. In 
one instance they showed their appreciation of art in a 
rather crude and barbarous way. When retiring from 
Constantinople, they carried off some, famous bronze horses 
and placed them over the portico of St. Mark's Cathedral 
in Venice. Napoleon took them from this cathedral at 
the time of his campaign in Italy, but they were returned 
at a later time. Now one of the sights of the city of 
Venice is the famous ^'Horses of St. Mark's." 



172 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



The Crusades also gave a new life to commerce and built 
up important trading cities, such as Venice, Pisa, and 
Genoa. The westerners also obtained the mariner's com- 
pass from the Arabs, and this instrument aided greatly in 
commerce and geographical explorations. It may be said 

that ''the horizon of 
Europe was immensely 
widened by the Cru- 
sades." Travel will 
broaden and educate 
any person who travels 
with his eyes open. 

The Travelers: Marco 
Polo. The crusaders 
also wrote home to their 
relatives and friends, 
and returning crusaders 
brought tales of the 
wealth and civilization 
of the great East. These 
stories made the travel- 
ers and the explorers 
of the time wish to 
know more of this interesting country. It was the Cru- 
sades that stirred such men as Marco Polo to action. 

During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the East 
was visited many times by men from Europe, but prob- 
ably the most famous of these travelers was Marco Polo. 
Marco Polo was a member of an old and aristocratic 
family of Venice. His father and his father's brother were 
engaged in trade on a large scale and traveled extensively 




A Venetian Ship 

One of the routes of trade from the East led 
to Venice and the valuable products of this 
eastern trade were carried to various parts 
of the Mediterranean world in proud little 
ships like the one represented in the picture. 



PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 



173 



in the pursuit of their business. On one occasion, the two 
brothers set out to visit their business house in Constanti- 
nople. After attending to their affairs at that place, they 
went on to the Crimea and from there to the court of the 
great Khan, in the northwestern part of China. This 
Chinese ruler had never seen European gentlemen before 
and was charmed by the two cultured and polite Venetians. 

After several years spent 
partly in business and partly in 
exploration, the Polos returned 
to their home in Venice. The 
experiences of this trip made 
them all the more eager for an- 
other one, and in 1271 the two 
brothers again set out for China, 
this time to be absent twenty- 
four years. They also took 
with them Marco Polo, then a 
boy of seventeen, who was eager 
for the novel experience. It 
took them four years to get to China, but they finally 
found their old friend, the great Khan, at a city near 
the northern end of the great Chinese Wall. When 
they first arrived, they did not find it easy to con- 
verse with the natives. But the young Marco applied 
himself to study and was soon able to speak and write 
several of the Asiatic languages. He entered the ser- 
vice of the great Khan and remained in it for seven- 
teen years. During this time, he made official trips up 
and down the vast domains of his master and pene- 
trated into the heart of Asia, where even now Euro- 




Marco Polo 



174 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

peans very rarely go. This was a very interesting and 
valuable experience. 

After having been away from home for twenty-one years 
the Polos felt hke returning. The great Khan, however, 
did not wish them to go, but they started, nevertheless, 
in 1292 and reached Venice three years later. When they 
came into their native town, after an absence of twenty- 
four years, nobody knew them. Like Ulysses and Rip van 
Winkle, they had changed a great deal in personal appear- 
ance. When they set out upon their journey, Marco 
Polo was a stripling of seventeen. He was now a man 
of forty-one. It is no wonder that people did not recog- 
nize the travelers in their '^shabby clothes of Tartar cut.'' 
They had, in fact, long been given up as dead. 

Soon after their return, they invited in a few old friends 
to have dinner with them. After the dinner was over, 
they brought out three coats and proceeded to rip open 
the welts and seams. Out fell diamonds, rubies, emeralds, 
sapphires, and other valuables — the spoils of twenty-four 
years of trade and travel. These, we are told, ^^had all 
been stitched up in those dresses in so artful a fashion 
that nobody could have suspected the fact." As soon as 
the Venetians were convinced that the three long-lost 
Polos had really returned, the whole city turned out and 
flocked to their home to greet and to embrace them. 

Three years after his return from China, Marco Polo was 
seized and cast into prison while fighting for his native 
city against Genoa. He remained in prison for a year and 
during that time he wrote his famous book, entitled 
^'The Book of Ser Marco Polo, concerning the Kingdoms 
and Marvels of the East." This book was an exceedingly 



PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 175 

valuable one as it gave the men of Europe much new 
information concerning the geography and resources of a 
great and rich country. A short time after this, another 
interesting book appeared. This was called, ^'The Voyage 
and Travels of Sir John Mandeville." Now, Sir John was 
a rank impostor who never really traveled in the East at 
all, but he led people to beUeve that he had by publishing 
a book made up of the writings of eastern travelers. 

All of these books had glowing stories to relate. They 
told of silver walls ''and golden towers," of precious stones 
and fountains of youth, and of immense palaces paved 
with gold, ''like slabs of stone, a good two fingers thick." 
These accounts were read with a relish by Europeans and, 
naturally enough, made them anxious to increase their 
trade with the East and to know more of that wonderful 
country. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Do you see how these pilgrims and explorers were making it easier 
for Colimibus and his men to undertake their great work later? 

2. Trace on your map the routes of the crusaders and Marco Polo's 
route to China. 

3. Find out if you can whether we have anything to-day like these 
pilgrimages. 

4. Report to your class on the work of Peary, or Amundsen, or Scott. 

5. Who inspired the Crusades and how? 

6. In what ways did the Crusades benefit the world? 

7. What caused King John to quarrel with the Archbishop of Canterbury? 

8. What does this chapter show in regard to the condition of the world 
outside of England? 

9. Do you think the Crusades really started the discovery period? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Buddhists. bood'Ists Constantinople. k6n-stan'tl-n6'p'l 

Chaucer, cho'ser Crimea, kri-me'd 

Clermont. kl6r'm6nt Khan, kan 



176 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Mandeville. man'de-vil Pisa, pe'sa - 

Marco Polo, mar'ko po'lo Syria. slr'I-ct 

Marseilles, mar-salz' Urban, tjr'ban 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 

The Northmen. We have already noticed that while the 
men from northern Europe were making voyages in differ- 
ent directions, some of them came to America (page 132). 
These men came to Iceland in 867 and founded a colony 
in Greenland a few years later. They then came to what 
is now known as North America. These men were not, 
however, in any true sense the discoverers of America. 
When they returned to their Scandinavian homes, they 
told the story of their voyage, but it apparently aroused 
but little interest. It was very much like a hundred other 
voyages which these daring Northmen had made at about 
that same time. The people did not realize the impor- 
tance of the voyage and soon forgot all about it. So 
nothing came from the so-called ''Norse discovery of 
America." 

The journeys of Marco Polo were much more important. 
In his book, he gave the Europeans a good account of 
the greatness and the riches of the East. He also added 
to their geographical knowledge of the eastern countries 
and of the Pacific Ocean. He returned from China by 
way of the Pacific and the Persian Gulf, and so knew what 
he was talking about. The Polos were the first Europeans to 
make a voyage upon what we now call the Pacific Ocean. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 



177 



Trade with the East. One of the most important re- 
sults of the Crusades and of the journeys of Marco Polo 
and other eastern travelers was the increase in trade be- 
tween Europe and the East. There were three principal 




C. of Good R 
or C- of Storms i 



Trade Routes to the East 

routes of trade, over which eastern goods were brought 
to European markets. The northern route led from the 
eastern part of China to Genoa by way of the Caspian and 
Black Seas and Constantinople. The central route went from 
India to Antioch by way of the Persian Gulf and the Tigris 
and Euphrates valley. The southern route led from India 
to Venice by way of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. 



178 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 




For centuries Europeans toiled up and down these routes 
with boat and caravan. They carried woolen cloth, hnen, 
black lead, wine, and glassware to the East and received in 
exchange fragrant spices, black pepper, cotton cloth, silks, 
perfumes, ivory, pearls, sapphires, diamonds, and other 
articles of great value. Over these long routes the rich 
products of the East were carried upon the backs of 
camels, mules, or horses, and even upon the backs of men. 
The long caravans of the merchants toiled slowly and 
painfully over mountains, through valleys, and across 

deserts, in the midst 
of snow, ice, or burn- 
ing sands, until their 
precious burdens 
were finally placed 
on shipboard at some 
Mediterranean port. 
This was a dangerous business. Sometimes the caravans 
were plundered by wild Asiatic tribes, again ships fell 
into the clutches of pirates, and now and then an entire 
cargo went to the bottom of the sea during one of the 
furious Mediterranean storms. Yet the profits in this east- 
ern trade were enormous and enough of the goods reached 
their destination to make Venice and Genoa, the rival 
cities, immensely wealthy. 

The Fall of Constantinople (1453). But while the mer- 
chants were reaping rich profits, an event occurred which 
changed the current of the world's history. Constanti- 
nople fell into the hands of the Turks. These Turks 
were turning their armies against the city of Constantine 
when the Crusades started in Europe. The crusaders 



Part of an Eastern Caravan 



THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 179 

checked the progress of the Turks and for several cen- 
turies kept them from capturing the city. But after a 
time the crusading spirit died away and the Turks laid 
siege to Constantinople and captured it in 1453. As a 
result of this, the eastern trade route leading to Genoa 
by way of Constantinople, was cut off. Business was 
ruined and Columbus probably saw grass and weeds grow- 
ing in the streets of his native city. It was now plain 
that, in a very short time, the Turks would cut off all of 
the overland trade routes between Europe and the East. 
And so the merchants faced a crisis. The eastern trade 
was a rich prize and they could not afford to lose it. 
Something had to be done and the men of Europe said, 
''A new trade route must be found to the great East J ^ 

The Water Route to the East. The new route would 
evidently have to be a water route, as the Turks were 
rapidly taking possession of the land. And there were 
other reasons, too, for preferring a water route to a land 
route at this time. Travel on the water was easier than 
upon the land and this was especially true, since the cru- 
saders had brought back to Europe a knowledge of the 
use of the mariner's compass. Sea navigation was now 
much safer than it ever had been before. 

The Revival of Learning. This problem of finding a 
new route to India was one of the most important and 
difficult ones that the men of Europe were ever compelled 
to face. Year by year the eastern trade was increasing 
and year by year the grip of the Turks was tightening 
upon the trade routes. It was really a desperate situation 
and the solution was exceedingly difficult on account of 
the scanty geographical and scientific knowledge. 



180 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

It was exceedingly fortunate that this great problem 
appeared just when it did. If it had come at an earlier 
time — for example, at the time when the Norsemen came 
to America — it undoubtedly would not have been solved; 
the mind of Europe would not have been equal to it. 
The gloom of the Dark Ages still covered the land. But 
now a great change had taken place. The Dark Ages had 
passed away and were followed by one of the most bril- 
liant periods in the whole history of Europe. This period 
is usually called the ^'Revival of Learning/' because men 
seemed to wake up after the long sleep of the Dark 
Ages. 

This revival began in Italy, but soon spread out over 
all Europe. Men studied literature and science with a 
tremendous eagerness and soon the revival extended to 
other lands. There was a revival in art, and a revival in 
commerce, in navigation and in the study of geography. 
Gunpowder was invented and "made all men the same 
height." That is, the small man with a gun became the 
equal of the large man, who hitherto had the advantage of 
his size. Printing by means of movable types was in- 
vented at this time and served to multiply books, to make 
them cheaper, and to put on record the results of the 
Revival of Learning. Men read and studied and thought, 
and were eager for travel by land and water. The spirit 
of enterprise and adventure was in the air. Men were 
more wide-awake than they had been for centuries and 
this period is sometimes called the "New Birth," because 
the world seemed to be born again. Taking it all in all, 
it seems very fortunate that the problem of a new route 
to the East confronted Europe just when it did. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 



181 



Portuguese Voyages. Although we do not now look upon 
the Portuguese as one of the leading nations of Europe, 
they were a very important people in the fifteenth cen- 



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Gutenberg Showing His First Proof 

Gutenberg was the inventor of printing by means of movable type. His 
invention, coming as it did at the close of the Dark Ages, marked a turning- 
point in civilization. 

tury, and especially so in matters relating to the sea. 
In fact, the Portuguese may be looked upon as the succes- 
sors of the Vikings, as they were the first people since 
the Northmen to undertake sea voyages on a grand scale. 
The Sea of Darkness. It required a bold mariner with 
a stout heart to make an ocean voyage in those days. 



182 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



The ships which the Portuguese and Spaniards were using 
were not so swift nor so seaworthy as the Uttle boats which 
the Northmen had used five hundred years before. The 
sailors' instruments were also crude. The mariner's com- 
pass was in use and the astrolabe, a new instrument for 
finding the latitude of a ship at sea, had been invented. 




Some of the Imaginary Terrors of the Sea of Darkness 

But, in general, it may be said that the equipment of the 
navigator was not very good. It is certain that a sea cap- 
tain of to-day would shudder if asked to venture upon the 
ocean under such conditions. 

And yet the lack of good instruments and staunch ships 
was not the only thing that kept men off the sea. The 
Atlantic Ocean had a bad reputation. It was called the 
**Sea of Darkness," and many shrank from it and shud- 



THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 183 

dered much as children do at the sight of a house which is 
said to be '^haunted." Men did not really know very 
much about the ocean, but they imagined a great many 
dreadful things. They knew that the weather became 
warmer as they went towards the south and so they came 
to the conclusion that the water must be boiling under the 
equator. The heat of this ^' fiery zone/' as it was called, 
would melt the pitch from the crevices of their ships and 
send them to the bottom. They also feared a sea-worm, 
or borer, which ''could eat through the strongest oaks,'' 
and thus wreck the ships of the mariners. To add to all 
these terrors of the deep, there was supposed to be some- 
where in the Indian Ocean a mountain of load-stone, 
whose magnetism drew the nails from the vessels and 
thus caused them to fall apart. The more remote parts 
of the ocean were supposed to be inhabited by terrible 
monsters known as gorgons and chimeras. An old pic- 
ture represents one of these monsters gliding up the side 
of the ship and grabbing one of the sailors from the rig- 
ging. Then again, ships sailing out of port seemed to go 
down hill, as the tops of the masts were the last to dis- 
appear. Upon noting this fact, some asked, ''How will 
it be possible for these ships to make their way up the hill 
again when they wish to return to port?" 

When we consider all these queer beliefs and strange 
notions, is it to be wondered at that the men of the Mid- 
dle Ages did not care to sail far out of the sight of land 
upon the Atlantic? 

Prince Henry the Navigator. There were some men, how- 
ever, in those days who could not be held back by frail ships, 
crude instruments, or sea monsters. These men were the 



184 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



bold Portuguese sailors of the fifteenth century, under their 
splendid leader and teacher, Prince Henry the Navigator. 
Prince Henry is one of the great characters of the period 
and has a wonderfully interesting story. He was one of 
the younger sons of a good king of Portugal and was born 
in 1394. At the age of twenty-one, he went with the 

Portuguese army to fight 
against the Moors in Morocco. 
While there he heard a great 
deal about the land and the 
productions of the East, as well 
as about the eastern trade. He 
came to the conclusion that a 
sea route would be of great 
importance to Portugal and, in 
fact, to all of Europe. In ad- 
dition to the commercial bene- 
fits derived, he hoped to build 
up a great Portuguese empire 
in the East and to convert 
millions of people to the 
Christian faith. 
When he returned from Morocco, he was offered several 
important military positions, but he declined them all, in 
order to devote himself to his great project. In order that 
he might not be disturbed, he left the royal court and the 
society of Lisbon and sought the seclusion of a lonely 
promontory on the southern coast of Portugal. Here on 
the promontory of Sagres, a '4onely and barren rock, jut- 
ting out into the ocean," he gave himself over to a study 
of his great problem. In this lonely spot, thought at one 




Prince Henry the Navigator 

The man who prepared the way for 
the discovery of the New World. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 185 

time to be the western-most limit of the habitable 
world, Prince Henry built an astronomical observatory 
and founded a school for the instruction of naviga- 
tors and geographers. His own study room was in a 
high tower where he pored over his problems in as- 
tronomy and navigation until far into the night. Sailors 
coming into port often saw the faint light streaming from 
his little window. His motto was, ''Desire to do well," 
and he seemed to live up to it admirably. In addition to 
being an enthusiastic scientist. Prince Henry had money 
enough to enable him to carry on his work. The central 
idea of his plan was to find a route to India by sailing 
around the continent of Africa. 

As a beginning. Prince Henry's men crept cautiously 
down the western coast of Africa, using the islands as 
stepping-stones. In the gloom of the Dark Ages, the 
Madeira Islands and the Canary Islands had been for- 
gotten for a thousand years. Now they were rediscov- 
ered. The men pushed on, mile after mile, down the coast, 
and were greatly encouraged by the long stretch of coast- 
line towards the east, but when after passing the Gulf of 
Guinea, the coast again turned to the south, their hearts 
fell within them. They were filled with doubts because 
they did not know the shape of the African continent and 
hence were not sure that they could sail round it at all. 
Some of the geographers thought (none of them had any 
definite knowledge) that Africa terminated in a southern 
cape and that it would be possible to sail from Portugal 
to India. Others held that the Indian Ocean was a closed 
sea — not connected with the Atlantic — and that it was 
impossible to sail around Africa. Some even thought that 



186 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

the African coast might extend as far south as the pole. 
So, as these sailors journeyed on one weary mile after 
another in a southerly direction, they became very much 
discouraged, but they did not give up their undertaking. 

Henry died in 1463, but the king of Portugal was his 
nephew and a very intelligent man and so the work went 
on. Some people complained that the African expeditions 
were costing too much money, but when the sailors brought 
back great quantities of gold and numerous natives from 
Africa to be sold in the slave markets, they seemed to be 
satisfied. 

Diaz Finds the Southern Cape (1487). The crowning 
glory of these Portuguese voyages was that made by Bar- 
tholomew Diaz, in 1486 and 1487. Diaz left Portugal 
with three small vessels in August of 1486. After sailing 
four hundred miles beyond the Tropic of Capricorn, he 
was driven directly south by high winds for thirteen days 
without being in the sight of land. After the wind ceased, 
he turned towards the east, expecting to see the shore. 
When he failed to sight land, he turned to the north and 
finally caught sight of the coast more than two hundred 
miles east of the Cape of Good Hope. He had rounded 
the southern cape without knowing it. He then sailed 
four hundred miles farther east, out into the Indian Ocean 
and was well on his way towards India, when his worn- 
out crew refused to proceed farther. Diaz then turned 
back. If he had been a Columbus or a Magellan, he 
probably would not have done so. On the homeward trip, 
Diaz passed near the southern cape and named it the 
''Cape of Storms," on account of the wind and waves 
which dashed against it. When he made his report of 



THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 187 

the voyage, however, the king of Portugal struck this name 
off the map and put in its place the one more familiar 
to us — the ''Cape of Good Hope." He had a hope that 
his men had solved the great problem and had found the 
long-sought-for route to the Indies. 

This was a memorable age. Diaz returned to Lisbon in 
December, 1487, after an absence of nearly a year and a 
half. During that time, he traveled thirteen thousand 
miles and exploded many of the myths and superstitions 
which hung over the sea of darkness. He encountered no 
fiery zone and he got back up the hill again without 
difficulty. It might also be well to remember that one 
member of his party on this voyage was Bartholomew 
Columbus, a younger brother of the famous Christopher. 

The Spaniards Seek a Route to the East. The Span- 
iards were also an enterprising people, and, while the Por- 
tuguese were seeking a route to the East, they were by no 
means idle. In fact, there was a great race between the 
Portuguese and the Spaniards to see which should reach 
India first. The Portuguese had made a good start under 
Diaz, but they had not yet reached the goal. Now the 
Spaniards, under the guidance of Christopher Columbus, 
tried to find a route to India in an entirely different direc- 
tion. We shall read the wonderful story of Columbus in 
the next chapter. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Trace the three principal trade routes to the East. 

2. Suppose Diaz had gone on until he reached the East Indies, would 
Columbus still have tried to find a different route? Keep this question 
in mind in the next chapter. 

3. If you made the trip to-day by water from Genoa to India what route 
would you use? Why did not some one try this route then? 



188 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

4. Why was the capture of Constantmople a turning point in history? 

5. Why was Prince Henry's work so valuable? What did Diaz's voyage 
find out? 

6. Tell something about the following: Cape of Storms, chimeras and 
gorgons, the Norse discovery, " Desire to do well." 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

astrolabe, as'tro-lab Guinea, gin'l 

Bartholomew Diaz, bar-thsro-mu Madeira, md-de'rd 

de'as Magellan. md-]eVdn 

Canary, kd-na'ri *' Morocco, mo-rok'o 

chimera, kl-me'rd Sagres. sa'grgs 

gorgon. gor'gon 



CHAPTER XIX 

COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 

" The first voyage of Columbus is a unique event in the history of 
mankind. Nothing like it was ever done before, and nothing 
like it can ever be done again. No worlds are left for a 
future Columbus to conquer J' 

"To sail the seas was in those days a task requiring high mental 
equipment; it was no work for your commonplace skipper. '^ 

"Human courage has never been more grandly displayed than by 
the glorious sailors of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." — 
John Fiske. 

While the hardy seamen of Prince Henry were making 
their plans on the high promontory, Christopher Columbus 
was puzzling over the same great problem, in a somewhat 
different way, in the quiet seclusion of one of the Madeira 
Islands, three hundred miles out from the mainland. It 
is interesting to watch the progress of this race for the 
Indies. 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 



189 




Christopher Columbus 



190 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Christopher Columbus was born of humble parents in 
the city of Genoa, Italy, about the year 1446. His father 
was a woolen weaver and the young Columbus also called 
himself a ^^ wool- worker of Genoa." We know very little 
about his boyhood, but it is evident that he did not at- 
tend school very regularly. Very few boys did so in Italy 
at this time. Some say that he attended a university, 
but there does not seem to be very good proof of this. 
He tells us himself that he went to sea at fourteen, but 
he probably returned at intervals and studied astronomy, 
mathematics, and geography. He was especially fond of 
geography and liked to draw maps. He became so skill- 
ful in this respect that he made maps and sailing charts 
and sold them to the navigators of the time. There was 
a brisk demand for these things, because sailors were 
pushing out to sea on all sides. 

He also made voyages himself. At times, we find him 
upon merchant ships in the Mediterranean, and again 
fighting Turkish pirates in eastern waters. 

Christopher Columbus had a younger brother, named 
Bartholomew, who was really as good a sailor as he and 
some think a better map and globe maker. When a 
young man, Bartholomew went to Lisbon because he was 
interested in the great work of Prince Henry and his men. 
Bartholomew also took a part in the African voyages and, 
as we have already noted, he was with Diaz on his memo- 
rable voyage around the Cape of Good Hope. 

A short time after Bartholomew went to Lisbon (1470) 
Christopher Columbus, attracted by the same means, 
turned his face towards the Portuguese capital. He too 
saw the tremendous importance of the work which Prince 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 



191 



Henry was doing and wished to have a part in it. He 
tells us himself that he accompanied some of the expedi- 
tions down the African coast. 

Columbus, however, did not give his entire attention to 
navigation while in Lisbon. A short time after coming 
to that city, he attended mass in the chapel of the Con- 




Map of the Known World in the Time of Columbus 

vent of All Saints and there met a young woman, named 
Felipa, who afterwards became his wife. Felipa was a 
member of an old and aristocratic family and her father 
was a famous Itahan navigator. He left a number of 
maps and sailing charts which fell into the hands of 
Columbus and were a great assistance to him. Soon 
after his marriage, Columbus went to a small estate 
owned by his wife's family in Porto Santo (the Holy 



192 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Port), one of the Madeira Islands, three hundred miles 
out to sea. Here, in quiet seclusion, he meditated upon 
the great problem and made plans for his western voyages. 
Many sailors on their way back from Guinea and other 
parts of the African coast touched at Porto Santo, and 
from these men Columbus eagerly sought all the in- 
formation he could get. 

Columbus became impatient, however, to be back at 
the center of things and so returned to Lisbon. At the 
time of his return, every one was talking and thinking 
of the African voyages and of the water route to India. 
Alfonso V, king of Portugal, was greatly interested in the 
whole scheme. It was about this time that the Portuguese 
sailors brought back the news that the African coast 
turned south at the Gulf of Guinea. This was rather 
discouraging information and Alfonso thought of trying 
to find some other way to India. So he wrote a letter to 
Toscanelli, the Italian, who was perhaps the most famous 
astronomer and geographer of his day, and asked him if he 
thought it possible to find a shorter route than the one 
which his sailors were seeking down the African coast. 
Toscanelli sent in reply a long letter to the king and 
enclosed a map of his own making, showing India and 
China directly west of Spain. This letter was dated 
June 25, 1474. 

Columbus Seeks Information from Toscanelli. Colum- 
bus heard about this letter to the king and he too 
asked Toscanelli to give him what information he could 
in regard to the route to the East. Toscanelli replied 
by sending to Columbus copies of the letter and map 
which he had previously sent to the king of Portugal. 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 193 

Columbus must have devoured this letter with great 
eagerness. 

ToscanelU told him that China and Japan lay to the west 
of Spain, and could undoubtedly be reached by sailing directly 
westward. He did not know, of course, anything about 
the existence of the great American continent, and was 
also mistaken in regard to the size of Asia. He thought 
that Japan was located in that part of the globe occupied 
by Mexico and was therefore much nearer to Spain than 
it really is. He regarded the western voyage as a splendid 
idea. He said to Columbus in a second letter, ^^I regard 
as noble and grand your project of saihng from west to 
east. . . . When that voyage shall be accomphshed, it 
will be a voyage to powerful kingdoms and to cities and 
provinces wealthy and noble, abounding in all sorts of 
things most desired by us; I mean with all kinds of 
spices and jewels in great abundance.'' Columbus must 
have been greatly elated when he read these words writ- 
ten by one of the ablest scientific men of the time. He 
prized these letters very highly and took the map with 
him on his first western voyage. 

Columbus Seeks Money for His Voyage. Columbus 
obtained information from other sources also — both from 
men and from books. The next thing to do was to obtain 
money to fit out his expedition, and he found it far easier 
to get information than to get money. 

Naturally enough, he first appealed to the king of 
Portugal for aid. The king at this time was John II, 
a nephew of Prince Henry, and hence interested in the 
whole problem of a water route to the Indies. But Colum- 
bus came to him only a short time before Diaz started 



194 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

on his famous voyage and the king said that he could not 
afford to undertake any voyages in addition to those 
down the African coast. He did, however, submit the 
plan of Columbus to a number of his learned men and 
asked them what they thought about it. Most of them 
said that the plan was visionary and absurd and that no 
attention should be paid to it. A few of them, nevertheless, 
defended the ideas of Columbus, but King John gave him 
no financial assistance. 

However, he stooped to a trick most unworthy of a 
king. He tried to steal the grand idea of Columbus. He 
took the sailing plans which Columbus had submitted to 
him and dispatched a vessel in haste and secrecy with 
instructions to sail west from the Cape Verde Islands and 
see if India could really be reached in that way. The 
sailors' hearts were not in the enterprise and they soon 
returned to Lisbon, scared half to death. They were sure 
that Columbus's plans were all moonshine. ''You might 
as well expect to find land in the sky," they said, ''as in 
that waste of water." When Columbus found what a 
shabby trick the king had tried to play on him, he left 
Portugal in anger and disgust and went to Spain for the 
purpose of asking aid from the King and Queen of Spain, 
Ferdinand and Isabella. He took with him his httle son, 
Diego, who was then four or five years of age, and left him 
with an aunt in a small town near Palos. His wife he 
never saw again, as she died soon after his departure. 

Columbus in Spain. Columbus appeared in Spain at a 
very unfavorable time. The Spanish monarchs had other 
business on hand. They were trying to keep the Moors 
from their door. These terrible Moors had invaded Spain 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 195 

about eight hundred years before and the Spaniards, after 
much fighting, had not been able to dislodge them. The 
Spanish monarchs were now engaged in another desperate 
attempt to drive them out of Spain and had no time 
to listen to Columbus. They were following the army 
about from place to place and holding court wherever they 
happened to be. Everything was in confusion and Fer- 
dinand and Isabella were more intent upon packing the 
Moors, bag and baggage, back to Africa than in making 
voyages to unknown lands. 

However, they referred the plans of Columbus to cer- 
tain learned men for their opinions. As usual, the scholars 
were divided. Some of them said that the plan was a 
crazy one and ridiculed Columbus as a madman, while 
others, some of them priests, thought that it might be 
well to give his plans a trial. But the committee was 
so hopelessly divided that no decision was reached. 

Weary of waiting, Columbus left Spain (1488) and went 
to Lisbon to see his brother Bartholomew, who had just 
returned from the Diaz expedition to the Cape of Good 
Hope. The news that the Portuguese had been successful 
in rounding the Cape made him all the more impatient 
to try his plan for a western voyage. He had already 
asked aid from Portugal and Spain, and some think from 
Genoa. He now sent Bartholomew to place the matter 
before the kings of England and France. On his way 
to England, Bartholomew was captured by pirates and 
delayed for a while, but he finally reached London and 
laid the plans of his brother before the king. But the 
king (Henry the Seventh), although interested in the 
scheme, was very slow about spending money in doubtful 



r 

196 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

voyages and did not come to an immediate decision. 
Bartholomew could not wait and pushed on to France. 

By the time that Bartholomew went to France, Chris- 
topher had returned to Spain in the hope that some 
change for the better might have taken place. In this he 
was again disappointed. The Moors were still holding their 
own against the Spaniards and large parts of the country 
were being laid waste by flood and famine. The monarchs 
had no time and no money to give to '' visionary" and 
''crazy" enterprises. They thought Columbus was a 
''crank" with some wild idea in his head. Columbus then 
entered the Spanish army, and fought with great bravery 
against the Moors. At the same time, he tried to interest 
wealthy men in his plan, but nothing practical came of the 
attempt. He spent two years in this way. No one would 
listen to him. The whole country was gathering its strength 
for a mighty effort against the Moors. Their famous 
stronghold, Granada, was to be seized and "the whole 
country was in a buzz of excitement." Columbus tagged 
about, following the camp and court from place to place, 
but all to no avail. Disgusted and discouraged to the last 
degree, he made up his mind to quit Spain and to lay his 
plans before the King of France. Bartholomew, as we 
have already seen, had set out for both England and 
France, but Christopher had not heard a word from him 
since his departure. 

Columbus was growing old under the weight of his years 
and his disappointments and was undoubtedly becoming 
somewhat peculiar in personal appearance as well as in 
his actions. This led some people to think that his mind 
was unbalanced. "For some years now," says John 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 197 

Fiske, ^Hhe stately figure of Columbus had been a famil- 
iar sight in the streets of Seville and Cordova, and as he 
passed along, with his white hair streaming in the breeze 
and his countenance aglow with intensity of purpose 
or haggard with disappointment at some fresh rebuff, 
the ragged urchins of the pavement tapped their heads 
and smiled with mingled wonder^ and amazement at this 
madman." 

Seventeen years had passed since Columbus had written 
to Toscanelli, asking his opinion of the western voyage, 
and during that time he had labored incessantly, but had 
apparently accomplished nothing. Now as he took his 
little son, Diego, by the hand and set out for France, his 
thoughts must have been gloomy enough. An ordinary 
man would have given up in despair. 

As he journeyed along the road, it is said that the little 
boy became hungry and thirsty and that the two travelers 
stopped at a monastery, a short distance from Palos, and 
asked for food and drink. Here the prior, or head man 
of the monastery, fell into conversation with Columbus 
and was greatly interested in his plans. He was a broad- 
minded man and called in other learned men to listen. 
They were also impressed, and the result was that the 
good prior, who knew the queen well, wrote her a letter 
in behalf of Columbus. The queen gave ear at once and 
invited the prior to come to the royal court and to bring 
Columbus with him. In due time the two men appeared 
in the Spanish Court, near Granada, and once more 
Columbus set his case eloquently before a council of 
learned men. This time, the scholars looked with rather 
more favor than formerly upon the project. Several of 



198 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



the priests approved his plan and the queen promised to 
take up the matter as soon as Granada had fallen. 

The Fall of Granada. Fortunately, they had not long to 
wait. Columbus went to Granada again to ask aid in 
December, 1491, and on January 2, 1492, the Moors sur- 
rendered the stronghold. While all of Europe was rejoic- 




COLUMBUS BEFORE QUEEN ISABELLA 

ing that the hated Moors had been overthrown, the queen 
and Columbus attempted to come to an agreement in re- 
gard to the voyage. They failed. Columbus put his 
terms so high that the queen would not accept them. 
He wanted to be admiral of the ocean and ruler of such 
heathen countries as he might discover and to have one 
eighth of the profits of the voyage. He hated the Turks 
and wished to use the profits of his expedition in driving 
them out of Jerusalem. 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 199 

The Agreement. The queen and Columbus could not 
reach an agreement and so the latter mounted his mule 
and rode out of Granada, determined to seek aid from the 
King of France. Some of the queen's advisers immediately 
rushed to her and convinced her that Spain was losing a 
valuable opportunity in permitting Columbus to go to 
France. A messenger was accordingly sent on a swift 
horse to summon Columbus back to the court. The 
courier overtook him about six miles out of Granada and 
induced him to go back to the city. Upon his return an 
agreement was quickly reached. The queen practically 
accepted the terms of Columbus and the agreement was 
signed April 17, 1492. Columbus was overcome with the 
joy of the moment and, with tears in his eyes, made a 
vow that he would use the profits of the expedition in 
rescuing the Holy Sepulchre of Christ from the hands 
of the Turks. 

Preparations for the Voyage. Columbus immediately 
went to Palos (May 14, 1492) and began the preparations 
for his great voyage. His bold project almost struck the 
people of the little seaport town dumb with amazement. 
They shuddered at the very thought of the sea of dark- 
ness and recoiled from the terrors of the "flaming zone." 
Columbus thought that a voyage of twenty-five hundred 
miles would bring him to the Indies. If the real distance 
— twelve thousand miles — had been known, the sailors 
would have shuddered still more. As it was, it was very 
difficult to induce any one to undertake the voyage. 
Men had their debts abolished and criminals were released 
from jail on condition that they embark with Columbus. 
Three small vessels were made ready. The largest of 



200 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



these was the Santa Maria, the flag-ship of Columbus. 

The second in size was a faster boat, called the Pinta, and 

the smallest was the 
Nina, or the ' ' Baby." 
Finally, every- 
thing was in readi- 
ness. All was excite- 
ment in the little 
seaport town. Busi- 
ness was stopped 
and men thought 
only of the myste- 
rious and dangerous 
voyage. The hard- 
ened mariners, about 
to sail, attended 
mass and confessed 




The Ships of Columbus 

The three ships of Columbus look like play- 
things when compared with a modern ocean 
liner. The largest was only 65 feet in length 
and 20 in breadth. 



their sins, in order to 
be prepared for the 
worst. One hundred 
and twenty men, in- 
cluding ninety sail- 
ors, a physician, and 
a surgeon, went on 
board after tearful 
good-byes, and on 
Friday, August 3, 
1492, an hour before 
sunrise, the ships set 
sail. By nightfall. 




A Modern Steamship 

The modern ocean steamship is a marvel of speed 
and comfort. The boat represented above is more 
than 15 times as long as the largest one of Colum- 
bus and crosses the ocean in a trifle more than 
four days. It took Columbus about seventeen 
times as long. 

they were forty-five miles away. 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 



201 



Let us try to make a mental picture of the great navi- 
gator, as he stood on the deck of the Santa Maria, peering 
out into the western darkness. He is said to have been 
'^a man of noble and commanding presence, tall and power- 
fully built, with fair, ruddy complexion and keen, blue-gray 




The Departure of Columbus 

eyes that easily kindled; while his waving white hair must 
have been picturesque." 

He was also ^^ courteous and cordial in his dealings with 
men" and charming in his conversation. But at the same 
time, he had ^'an indefinable air of authority about him." 
He expected his orders to be obeyed. In addition, he had 
^Hhat divine spark of religious enthusiasm," which ani- 
mated the best of the crusading heroes. 

Such was the great Italian navigator at the time of his 
departure from Palos. And what was his service to the 
world? He was not the first to find out that the earth is 
a globe and not a flat surface. That was done by the 



202 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Greeks two thousand years before Columbus was born. 
Neither was he the first to suggest the idea of a western 
passage to the Indies. Toscanelh and others had talked 
about that, and at the time of Columbus the idea of a 
western route to the East was ^'in the air." Even Aris- 
totle, eighteen hundred years before the time of Columbus, 
had said that ''between the end of Spain and the begin- 
ning of India the sea is small and navigable in a few 
days." What, then, was the great service of Columbus? 
It was this. He was the first man who had the supreme 
courage to push boldly out into the Sea of Darkness in search 
of the new route which other men were merely talking about. 

''What if wise men, as far back as Ptolemy, 
Judged that the earth like an orange was round, 
None of them ever said, 'Come along, follow me, 
Sail to the West and the East will be found.'" 

The First Voyage (1492). Columbus sailed directly to 
the Canary Isles, where he remained for some time making 
repairs on the Pinta. The ship's rudder was broken and 
he suspected that some of her sailors had broken it so that 
they and the ship might be sent back to Spain. Some of 
the sailors were already tired of their bargain and shud- 
dered at the thought of turning west from the Canaries. 
While they were delaying at the Canaries, a volcano 
on one of the islands erupted violently and they were sure 
that this was a very bad omen. There was a rumor also 
that Portuguese sailors were lurking in the nearby waters 
for the purpose of capturing Columbus and of carrying 
him off to Portugal. 

The little vessels set out from the Canary Islands on 
the sixth day of September. The sea was calm enough, 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 203 

but the crew was much disturbed. Their minds were 
filled with dismal forebodings and the farther they went, 
the louder became the grumbhng. In order to keep them 
as quiet as possible, Columbus did not tell them the real 
distance which the ships sailed each day. He always sub- 
tracted something so that the sailors should not know their 
real distance from Spain. 

All eyes were eagerly watching for every sign of life or 
land. A few days out from the Canaries, they saw a 
large piece of a ship's mast and probably wondered what 
the fate of the ship had been. A few days later, they saw 
two birds; then they ran into an immense prairie of sea- 
weed, alive with fish and crabs. The speed of the vessels 
was checked and they were afraid for a time of running 
aground. This was a false fear, however, as weeds grow 
in this locality on the surface of water which is more than 
two miles in depth. Next 'they saw a flock of sand-pipers, 
and a little later they were sure that they sighted land 
in the distance. After they had finished singing a song 
of praise to God for their success, they saw that the 
^'land" was clouds in the sky. 

They sailed on through heavy rain and storms, saw 
flying fish and birds of various kinds, and sighted flocks 
of wild ducks at night, flying over their heads. In the 
meantime, the trade winds were hurrying them on towards 
the west. Would the wind change its direction and waft 
them back again to their homes? The sailors thought not 
and some of them suggested that it would be a good idea 
to push Columbus overboard and then say that he had 
tumbled off the ship while gazing at the stars. The com- 
plaints became louder and more dangerous. Finally 



204 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Columbus stood up in all his dignity and told his men that 
it was useless for them to complain, as he had started out 
to find the Indies and that, with the help of God, he would 
keep on until he found them. On the very next night, at 
ten o'clock, a light was seen moving to and fro in the 
distance. Four hours later — at two o'clock on the morn- 
ing of October 12, 1492 — land was distinctly seen in the 
moonlight. A little later the sails were dropped and the 
men waited eagerly for the day to dawn. 

Columbus was on the threshold of a new world, but was 
not aware of it. At daybreak, he went ashore on one of 
the small coral islands of the Bahama group and took 
possession of the land in the name of the king and queen 
of Spain. He named the island San Salvador (Holy 
Savior) and called the inhabitants of the locality '^ In- 
dians,^' because he thought he had reached the Indies. 

Strange sights greeted the eyes of the Spaniards. The 
landscape was beautiful, but the trees were very different 
from those of Spain. The sailors were greatly excited. 
They thought they had reached the rich East and saw 
priceless fortunes almost within their grasp. Sailors, who 
a day or two before were plotting to throw the great ad- 
miral overboard, now kissed his hands and humbly begged 
his pardon. Columbus spent about three months beating 
about among the islands and exploring new coasts. He 
came to Cuba and thought that he was on the mainland 
of Asia and not far from the kingdom of the great Khan 
of whom Marco Polo had written. In fact, he sent two 
messengers to the great monarch to bring him messages 
of greeting and good will from the king and queen of 
Spain. Instead of a great city of oriental splendor, how- 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 



205 




206 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

ever, with golden palaces and marble bridges, they 
found villages of naked savages, in the midst of humble 
patches of corn, potatoes, and tobacco. It is here too 
that Europeans first saw men smoking. The leaves of the 
plant were rolled up in the form of a tube, somewhat 
resembling the modern cigar, and hghted at one end. 
These tubes were called tobaccos. The use of tobacco was 
introduced into Europe not long after. 

The First Colony. Columbus next went to the island 
which we now call Haiti, but which he called the ^'Spanish 
Isle." Columbus was charmed by the beauty of the place. 
The trees were so tall that they seemed to touch the sky 
and the notes of the nightingale and other birds echoed 
through the otherwise silent forests. The Indians told 
him that the island contained '4arge mines of fine gold" 
— at any rate, he thought they told him this. He never 
could be quite certain of what the Indians said because 
they conversed by means of signs and mutterings. 

Being delighted with the island, Columbus determined 
to establish a colony there. The lumber for the fort and 
storehouse was furnished in a most unexpected way. On 
Christmas morning, before daybreak, the Santa Maria 
went onto a sand bank and was dashed to pieces on the 
beach. Her boards and timbers were used in the con- 
struction of a rude building. Fortunately the cargo and 
provisions were saved, thanks to the prompt assistance 
of the Indians. About forty men, including artisans, a 
tailor, and a physician, were left behind in the new col- 
ony with provisions and seeds enough for a year. This 
colony was the first white colony in the new world, if we 
except the Norse settlement in Vinland. A few years 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 207 

later (1498), Bartholomew Columbus founded Santo 
Domingo on the island of Haiti in honor of his father. 
This is "the oldest European settlement in the New World 
which still exists, ^^ the first colony of Columbus having 
vanished within a year. 

There was another reason for the founding of the colony, 
aside from the wreck of the Santa Maria and the general 
desire to occupy the land for Spain. The commander of 
the Pinta, who was unfriendly to Columbus, suddenly dis- 
appeared with his ship and no trace could be found of him. 
It is thought that he wanted to get back to Spain before 
Columbus did and thus get the lion's share of the glory for 
finding the route to the Indies. After the wreck of the 
Santa Maria and the departure of the Pinta, Columbus 
had left only the Nina, the baby ship of the fleet, and this 
tiny vessel would not be able to carry the entire party 
back to Spain. 

The Journey Home. On the fourth of January, 1493, 
the Nina set out for Spain. Two days later, she met the 
Pinta off the northern coast of Haiti. The commander of 
the latter boat hastened to explain that a storm had 
driven him out to sea and that he really had no thought 
of deserting his comrades. Columbus never quite believed 
him, yet the two vessels now set out for Spain together'. 

The homeward passage was not an easy one. The 
trade winds compelled the ships to take a more northerly 
course and, just before reaching the Azores, they were 
caught in a storm which raged furiously for four days. 
No one thought that the frail vessels could weather such 
terrific gales and Columbus feared that he might go to the 
bottom of the sea without being able to give Ferdinand 



208 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

and Isabella an account of his great voyage. He there- 
fore wrote upon parchment two reports of his expedition 
and directed them to the king and queen. Each of these 
he wrapped in cloth and wax and encased in a barrel. 
One of them, he threw into the sea and the other, he kept 
on shipboard. 

Finally, the land appeared — an island of the Azores — 
and Columbus sent some of his men ashore to give thanks 
for their safety from the storm by saying their prayers 
in a small chapel. They were promptly arrested and held 
for several days. Columbus finally succeeded in getting 
the governor of the island to release them. 

A little later, another terrible storm broke over the 
Nina and she was driven to the coast of Portugal and 
found safety by running into the mouth of the Tagus 
River, on the fourth of March. The news soon spread 
that Columbus and the Spaniards had returned from the 
Indies and there was excitement in the air. Great crowds 
overran the vessel and swarmed about the docks, craning 
their necks to get a glimpse of the Indians which Colum- 
bus had on board. It is said also that the surrounding 
water could not be seen "so full was it of the boats and 
skiffs of the Portuguese." Some of the Portuguese, feeling 
that the Spaniards had beaten them in the race for the 
Indies, were exceedingly surly and wanted to have Colum- 
bus put to death. Fortunately, better counsel prevailed 
and no attempt was made upon the life of the great 
mariner. 

Four days after his arrival, the king of Portugal sent a 
very polite note asking Columbus to visit him at the royal 
court. The invitation was accepted. About nine years 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 209 

before, Columbus had visited this same royal court and 
had asked assistance from this same king and his plans 
had been rejected by the learned men of the court as 
''empty talk" and ''mere prattle." Things had changed 
since that time. Now Columbus with becoming dignity 
reminded King John that he was too late — that he had 
let the golden opportunity slip by. Some of the men 
about the court thought it would be a good idea to pick 
a quarrel with Columbus and then run him through with 
a sword. But King John would not listen to the sug- 
gestion. 

After remaining in Portugal for nine days, the Nina 
put out to sea again and dropped anchor in the harbor of 
Palos, two days later, the fifteenth of March, 1493. The 
news of Columbus's return ran like wild-fire about the 
town. The relatives of the sailors rushed to greet them. 
People forgot all about their business and gathered in 
eager groups to listen to the tales of the sailors. The whole 
town turned out. Bells were rung and chants of praise 
were sung to the Lord for deliverance from the terrors of 
the Sea of Darkness. 

The Surprise. About nightfall, when the bells were 
ringing and the people were surging up and down the 
streets, with lighted torches in their hands, another 
familiar looking vessel dropped anchor in the harbor. 
Men peered at her through the gathering darkness. She 
was no other than the Pinta. The two ships had been 
separated in the storm off the Azores and each thought 
that the other had been lost. The meeting was a happy 
one and March 15th thus became a notable day in the 
history of Palos. 



210 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



Columbus at the King's Court. The weeks following 
Columbus's return were the happiest time in his whole 
hfe. He was summoned to the royal court at Barcelona 
and his journey there was like a triumphal procession. 
Crowds of people stood by the roadside to get a glimpse 
of the great navigator as he passed with his stuffed birds, 




Columbus at Barcelona 

live parrots, and wild Indians which he had brought back 
from the Indies. At the royal court, he was received with 
the highest honor. The king and queen awaited his com- 
ing ^'on a richly decorated seat, under a canopy of cloth 
and gold." They rose when he appeared and made him 
take a seat at their side. This was the highest honor 
which they could confer upon him. 

The Pope's Line (1493). Ferdinand and Isabella at 
once informed the Pope of the voyage of Columbus and 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 211 

told him that the inhabitants of the land which he had 
found off the coast of Asia were well fitted to receive the 
Christian religion. They also asked him to define the 
rights of Spain in the new territory so that there would 
be no quarrel with Portugal. This the Pope did by his 
famous Line of May 4, 1493 (see map, page 221). He said 
that the Spaniards should have all the heathen lands which 
they might discover west of a meridian drawn one hundred 
leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands and that the Portu- 
guese should have similar rights on the east side of this line. 
In the following year, the two nations agreed by treaty to 
place the '4ine fence" three hundred and seventy leagues 
west of the islands. It was still supposed to be in mid- 
ocean, but really was not, and the blunder unexpectedly 
gave Brazil to Portugal. 

The Second Voyage (1493). Columbus, however, did 
not spend much time in the ease and luxury of the royal 
court. He began preparations at once for his second 
voyage and sailed — this time from the port of Cadiz — 
on the twenty-fifth of September, 1493. 

This expedition was not much like the little terror- 
stricken one which had sailed from Palos the year before. 
This time there were seventeen ships, carrying fifteen hun- 
dred men, together with horses, sheep, cattle, vegetables, 
grain, grapevines, fruit trees, and almost everything else 
that might be needed in a new colony. The ships stopped 
at the Canaries and added calves, goats, pigs, chickens, 
as well as orange, lemon, melon, and sugar-cane seeds 
to their cargo. No women accompanied the expedition. 
Every one on board thought that he was to sail directly 
to the Indies — the land of jewels and spices. Some 



212 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

thought was also given to the welfare of the souls of the 
poor benighted heathen. A priest was appointed ''Vicar 
of the Indies" and he was probably the first to say mass 
on the western shores. It was also planned that the good 
Vicar was to have the assistance of native mission- 
aries. Six of the savages, brought over by Columbus 
were still living and these had been baptized in Barce- 
lona with Ferdinand and Isabella as godfather and god- 
mother. These men were to aid in the conversion of their 
people. One of them, however, died soon after his bap- 
tism and was said by the Spaniards to be the first Indian 
to enter the portals of heaven. 

It was not very difficult to get men for this voyage. 
Columbus wanted only twelve hundred, but fifteen hun- 
dred insisted on going and the ships were overcrowded. 
Many nobles and other distinguished men were in the 
company. 

Land was sighted early in November and Columbus 
proceeded to cruise about among the islands of the Carib- 
bean Sea. Here he met repulsive cannibals who killed a 
few of his men with poisoned arrows. He touched Porto 
Rico and then went to the site of the colony founded on 
the island of Haiti, the year before. He entered the 
harbor late at night and fired a salute from the ship's 
cannon. They hstened. There was no sound, save the 
echo of the gun. The place was deserted. About mid- 
night, some Indians in a canoe came out to Columbus's 
ship and got on board. The redmen explained that some 
of the colonists had died of disease and that others had 
married Indian wives and moved away. At daybreak, 
Columbus went ashore and saw enough to convince him 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 213 

that his colonists had been massacred by the Indians. 
Not a man of them ever appeared and no one to this 
day knows exactly what became of the forty men left on 
the island. 

^'This was the gloomy welcome to the land of promise.'^ 
Columbus selected a new site for his colony — a little 
farther to the east and on the north coast of Haiti. Here 
he planned a town which he called ''Isabella" in honor of 
his queen. Quite a town was laid out, and public buildings 
were made of stone and private ones of wood and straw. 
But the work was hard for those not used to it and 
many became ill and some were terribly homesick also. 
To make matters worse, Columbus fell sick and the out- 
look for Isabella was not a rosy one. 

The strain upon Columbus had been intense for many 
years and his illness was very serious. He was sick for 
five months and was unconscious for a part of the time. 
One day when he regained consciousness he was surprised 
to find his brother Bartholomew standing at his bedside. 
He had not seen him since the day he had started to seek 
aid from the king of England, six years before. It was a 
joyous meeting. The two brothers were exceedingly fond 
of each other and now Bartholomew would be of untold 
assistance to Christopher in starting the new colony. 

The Return to Spain (March, 1496). After remaining 
in the New World for nearly three years, Columbus went 
back to Spain in the spring of 1496, leaving his brother 
Bartholomew in command of the colony. He had two 
boats with about two hundred homesick Spaniards and 
thirty Indians, including a captive Indian prince, with a 
gold chain weighing six pounds hanging about his neck. 



214 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



Columbus's reception in Spain this time wa<s not very 
cordial — not much like the reception after his first voyage. 
The Third Western Voyage (May 30, 1498). Columbus 
had not brought back gold, silver, jewels, silks, and spices 
in any very large quantities and so his voyages were com- 
ing to be looked upon as failures; however, another expe- 
dition was fitted out and in the spring of 1498 Columbus 




The Voyages of Columbus 

set sail with six ships and two hundred men. This time 
he bore off to the south and sailed within a few degrees 
of the equator. Here in the ''belt of calms" he encoun- 
tered heat that was almost unbearable. Washington 
Irving in his ''Life of Columbus" describes his experiences 
as follows: "The wind suddenly fell, and a dead sultry 
calm commenced, which lasted for eight days. The air 
was like a furnace; the tar melted, the seams of the ship 
yawned; the salt meat became putrid; the wheat was 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 



215 



FLORID/" 

GULF OF^^ 



MEXICO 



SCALE OF MILES 



T ^ 100 200 400 600 

• • -'SAR SALVADOR^V rn 



PORTO RICO 



parched as with fire; the hoops shrank from the wine and 
water casks, some of which leaked and others burst, while 
the heat in the holds of the vessels was so suffocating 
that no one could remain below a sufficient time to pre- 
vent the damage that was taking place. The mariners 
lost all strength and spirits, and sank under the oppressive 
heat. It seemed as if the old fable of the torrid zone was 
about to be realized; 
and that they were ap- 
proaching a fiery re- 
gion where it would be 
impossible to exist." 

Columbus sailed be- 
tween the Island of 
Trinidad and the main- 
land of South America 
and narrowly escaped 
being swamped by the 

rush of waters from '^^^ lands touched by Columbus on his vari- 
ous voyages are shown in black. 

the Orinoco River. 

He was greatly interested and wanted to explore farther 
west, but his strength failed him and his eyes, strained 
with constant watching, could not be used to make ob- 
servations; so he sailed directly from Haiti and arrived at 
the town of Santo Domingo (founded by his brother 
Bartholomew in 1498) just after the departure of his 
brother for Spain. 

Things had not been going well in the Spanish colony. 
The men were discontented and rebellious and it was 
necessary for Columbus and his brother to rule them with 
an iron hand. Complaints were sent across the sea to 




The Discoveries of Columbus 



216 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Spain, and in the spring of 1499 Ferdinand and Isabella 
appointed a Spanish general, named Bobadilla, to rule in 
place of Columbus. When Bobadilla reached Santo 
Domingo, the first sight that met his eyes was the swing- 
ing bodies of seven Spaniards whom Columbus had hanged 
for rebelHng against him. Five more of the ringleaders 
were in prison to be hanged on the morrow. Bobadilla 
was prejudiced against Columbus and these things led him 
to believe that the rule of the navigator had been cruel 
and inhuman. He, therefore, cast Columbus and his 
brother into prison and soon after sent them to Spain in 
chains. The captain of the ship was shocked at this 
treatment of Columbus and offered to take off his fetters, 
but the great admiral would not consent to it. He said 
that his chains should never come off except by the order 
of his gracious sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella ; and so 
with his fetters clanking, Columbus walked through the 
streets of Cadiz. 

As soon as the king and queen heard of his sad plight, 
they ordered him to be released and invited him to visit 
them at the royal court. Money was also sent to pay his 
expenses. When he arrived, the queen received him with 
tear-dimmed eyes and the broken old man threw himself 
at her feet and sobbed like a child. The monarchs treated 
Columbus in a very kindly way and assured him that 
Bobadilla had gone beyond his instructions. They gave 
back some of his rights and privileges, but they never 
fully restored him to power. 

The Portuguese Find a Route to the East. Columbus 
was now stunned by another piece of important news. 
The Portuguese had reached the goal. They had won the 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 



217 



race to the Indies. While he was groping around among 
islands inhabited by wretched savages, the Portuguese had 
found the real Indies, with all their wealth and splendor, 
thousands of miles away. 

The discovery was made in this way. In the summer of 
1497 — while Columbus was in Spain making arrange- 
ments for his third voyage — Vasco Da Gama, "a young 
man of unwavering courage 
and iron resolution,^' following 
up the work of Diaz, sailed 
from Lisbon and reached In- 
dia in May of the following 
year. His voyage was a most 
remarkable one. Instead of 
hugging the African coast, as 
Diaz had done, he sailed off 
into the ocean from the Cape 
Verde Islands and was out of 
sight of land for ninety-three 
days — ^Hhe longest, unbroken 
sea voyage up to this time." 

He returned to Lisbon two years after his departure, laden 
with the spices, jewels, silks, and fine fabrics of the East. He 
had seen the great cities and had talked with the powerful 
rulers and there was absolutely no doubt about his success. 
The Portuguese had solved the great problem and while 
Da Gama was making a triumphal entry into Lisbon 
(1499), Columbus was being ridiculed as ^Hhe admiral of 
Mosquito Land, the man who had discovered a land of 
vanity and deceit, the grave of Spanish gentlemen." 
Lisbon and not Cadiz grew rich from the eastern trade. 




Vasco Da Gama 



218 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Fourth Voyage (1502). We may be sure that the 
success of Da Gama put Columbus on his mettle for another 
voyage. Although the expeditions had not been profitable, 
Ferdinand and Isabella were ready to try it again. Colum- 
bus hoped to find a strait which would bring him into the 
Indian Ocean and to the same shores of India (Hindustan) 
which Da Gama had reached by sailing eastward. With four 
small ships and one hundred and fifty men, he set out in 
May, 1502. The faithful Bartholomew was again at his 
side. By the irony of fate, he was forbidden to visit on 
the outward trip the colony which he had founded in 
Haiti, but might do so on his return. One of the ships 
having become disabled, he asked permission to enter the 
port to make arrangements for another. His request was 
denied. He then encountered the most terrible storms 
that he had ever met. For eighty-eight days, his ships 
were tempest-tossed and during that time, he saw neither 
sun nor stars. He explored the coast of Central America 
and was then shipwrecked upon the coast of Jamaica, 
where he remained for a year. The governor of the 
Spanish colony refused him assistance, although one of his 
men went all the way in a canoe to ask for it. This 
was a terrible year. Rebellion sprang up, but was quelled 
by the strong right arm of Bartholomew. Finally, the 
governor of the Spanish colony was compelled to send aid 
to Columbus, and early in November, 1504, he was back 
again in Spain. 

''One woe treads on another woe's heels." His staunch 
friend. Queen Isabella, was on her death-bed and passed 
away about two weeks after the landing of Columbus. 

It was thirty years since he had written his famous let- 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 219 

ter to Toscanelli and the weight of these troubled years 
had borne upon him with crushing effect. He was now an 
old man, broken in body and in spirit. He hved on for 
a year and a half in poverty, sickness, and obscurity and 
died on the twentieth of May, 1506. The annals of the 
city in which he died made no mention of his passing. 
The event was not considered important. 

He failed to find a route to the Indies. The Portuguese 
had won the race; but the failure of Columbus turned out 
to be more important than the success of Vasco Da Gama. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Read Joaquin Miller's poem entitled " Columbus." 

2. Imagine yourself to be Columbus presenting your case and asking 
for aid at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. Make such a speech as 
he might have made. 

3. Columbia is the poetical personification of the United States. We sing 
" O Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean," thus paying tribute to Columbus. 
Numerous cities and towns are named for the great discoverer. Look 
over a map of the United States and find some of them. 

4. How long did it take Columbus to make his first voyage? In what 
time can it be made to-day? 

5. Why did Coliunbus make so many voyages? 

6. What noble traits were there in his character? 

7. Tell what you can about the following: Haiti, Santo Domingo, 
the three ships of the first voyage, " the Une fence," Toscanelli, Palos, 
Porto Santo, Ferdinand and Isabella. 

8. What was the greatest service of Columbus? 

9. Why was Columbus's work more valuable to the world than Vasco 
Da Gama's? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Azores. d-z6rz' Felipa. fa-le'pd 

Bahama, bd-ha'md Granada, grd-na'dd 

Barcelona, bar'se-lo'nd Haiti, ha'tl 

Bobadilla. bo'ba-deria Jamaica, jd-ma'kd 

Cadiz, ka'diz Nina, nen'yd 

Cordova, kor'do-va Orinoco, o'ri-no'ko 

Diego, de-a'go Palos. pa'los 



220 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



Pinta. pen'td 

Porto Santo, por'too san'too 

Ptolemy, tor-e-ml 

San Salvador, san sal'va-dor' 

Santa Maria, san'ta md-re'd 

Santo Domingo, san'to d6-miq'g6 



Seville. s6v'Il 

Tagus. ta'giis 

Toscanelli. tos'ka-ngrie 

Trinidad, trin'i-dad' 

Vasco da Gama. vas'ko da ga'ma 

Verde, viird 



CHAPTER XX 

THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 

John Cabot on the Atlantic Coast (1497-1498). The 
King of England (Henry VH) was also interested in the 
project of a western passage to India. You will recall 

that Bartholomew Columbus 
had talked with him about 
the matter when he was seek- 
ing aid for his brother Chris- 
topher, and he now probably 
had come to the conclusion 
that he made a mistake in 
not accepting the services of 
Columbus. So in 1497, a 
short time before Da Gama set 
out on his famous voyage, 
King Henry sent John Cabot 
with one small ship and 
eighteen men to try to find a 
northwest passage to the East. Cabot sailed from Bristol 
and on the twenty-fourth of June he saw land, probably 
in the neighborhood of what is now Labrador. John 
Cabot was thus the first European, since the Northmen, 




John Cabot 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 



221 




Early Voyages of Discovery and the Pope's Line of Division 



222 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



to set eyes upon the continent of North America. King 
Henry was so greatly pleased at the success of the voyage 
that he graciously gave Cabot ten pounds (about fifty dol- 
lars) for finding what he called the ''New Isle." It was 
thought, of course, that Cabot had merely discovered an 
island off the coast of Asia. 

In the following spring, Cabot again crossed the ocean 
and this time he explored the coast, probably as far south 

as South Carolina. There is 
no record that the gallant sail- 
ors ever returned to Europe 
from this voyage. He was 
probably ''lost in the gloom 
of the western ocean." His 
voyages are important because 
on account of them England 
laid claim to the entire conti- 
nent of North America. 

Americus Vespucius Explores 
South America (1501). The 
Portuguese having reached 
India by sailing south and 
east, now began to send out expeditions to the southwest. 
In 1501, Americus Vespucius accompanied one of these 
expeditions which explored the coast of South America 
from Cape San Roque to La Plata River in search of a 
southwestern route to India. Vespucius passed through 
such beautiful scenery that he, like Columbus, on the 
Pearl Coast of South America, thought that he could not 
be far from the Garden of Eden. From the mouth of 
La Plata River, the expedition turned to the southeast — 




Americus Vespucius 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 223 

it was already on the Spanish side of the Pope's hne — 
and went as far as the island of South Georgia, twelve 
hundred miles east of Cape Horn. The storms were 
fierce and the rough sea threatened to engulf the tiny ves- 
sels at any moment. At South Georgia, they found no 
people — only the cold gray of icebergs and glaciers. 
The expedition had gone farther south than any previous 
one and now turned about and started back home through 
thousands of miles of trackless ocean. This must be looked 
upon as one of the greatest voyages ever made. 

Vespucius made several other voyages and then wrote a 
brilliant account of his experiences on the sea — a part of 
which was probably not true. The people were astonished 
at the wonderful story and began to realize the vast ex- 
tent of sea-coast over which he had traveled. Vespucius 
had explored such long stretches of coast that the people 
gradually came to the conclusion that the new land was 
a continent and not an island. 

It was about this time that Martin Waldseemiiller, 
a German professor, pubhshed a geography in which he 
suggested, as we have already seen, that the ^^new" or 
'^fourth" part of the earth be called ''America/^ in honor 
of its discoverer, Americus Vespucius. This was done. 
It would have been more appropriate to name the New 
World ''Columbia," in honor of its real discoverer, Chris- 
topher Columbus, but people did not know at that time 
that there was any connection between the work of Colum- 
bus and that of Vespucius. It was thought that Ves- 
pucius had discovered a new southern continent, while 
Columbus had reached the islands off the coast of India. 
Some have said that Vespucius resorted to trickery in 



224 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

order to have the New World named in his honor, but 
this is not true. 

Balboa and the Western Route (1513). The problem 
of a water route to the Indies was still in men's minds. 
True, the Portugese had found such a route by sailing 
around Africa, but it was a very long one and sailors still 
hoped to find a shorter western passage. Land had blocked 
the paths of Columbus, Cabot, and Vespucius, but it was 
hoped that a strait might be found which would lead to 
the rich East. 

Balboa, a venturesome and courageous Spaniard, was a 
planter on one of the Bahama Islands. He was restless 
and became eager for discovery and exploration, but was 
so heavily in debt that his creditors would not let him 
leave the island. So he had himself nailed up in a barrel 
and carted on shipboard with packages of provisions and 
thus reached the Isthmus of Panama. When he arrived, 
the Indians told him of another sea ''where they sail with 
ships as big as his." He wanted to find this new ocean 
and so he pushed across the Isthmus, forty-five miles in 
eighteen days, where ''thickets, tangled swamps, slippery 
cliffs, enormous trees, and interlacing vines, blocked the 
way at every turn." He finally reached the peak of 
Darien and, climbing alone to the top, he looked down 
upon the ocean which we now call the Pacific. Profoundly 
impressed at the sight of this great body of water, he 
threw himself prostrate upon the ground and then raised 
himself upon his knees and gave thanks to God for per- 
mitting him to see this wonderful sight. A little later, he 
rushed into the billows of the rising tide and with drawn 
sword took possession of the sea in the name of the King 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 



225 



of Spain. He had passed the obstruction of the new land, 
but he was still far from the islands where the spices grew. 
Magellan Sails Around the Globe (1519-1522). In 
spite of all the obstacles which they encountered, the 
brave sailors were not ready to give up the idea of a 




Balboa Discovering the Pacific 



western route to India. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese 
navigator, when a boy, had witnessed the triumphal re- 
turn of Da Gama from India. Inspired by this, he pro- 
posed to the king of Portugal that another western voyage 
be made, but the king would not listen to him. ^'Magellan 
was not the man to sit quiet with a great idea in his head," 
and so, like Columbus, he went to the king of Spain and 
offered his services. The offer was accepted. 



226 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



Early in the fall of 1519, Magellan in command of five 
Spanish ships, small and poor, sailed awav to the south- 
west, hoping to find the strait through the new continent 
which would lead him to India. He coasted along the 
east shore of South America, making many observations 
as he went, and finally reached the straits which now 




Magellan Landing in the Philippines 

bear his name. Here one of his five ships deserted and 
went back to Spain. Passing through the dangerous 
straits, Magellan sailed out into the ocean, which Balboa 
had discovered at a different point, a few years before. 
This he named the ^^ Pacific," because it seemed so peace- 
ful, after leaving the storms of the Atlantic. 

With great suffering, the men crossed the broad Pacific 
and finally landed in the Philippine Islands. Magellan 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 



227 



and his men knew very little of the chmate and the seasons 
in the southern hemisphere and were surprised when they 
were compelled to go into winter quarters at Easter and 
and when they found the summer beginning in September. 
What Magellan and his men suffered on this voyage can 
never be told. They fought against hunger, cold, heat, 
wind, wave, and disease. For a time they had nothing to 




t.^^Strait of 
C.Horn ^'^Sellan 



Magellan's Expedition, 1519-1522 

eat but stale crumbs. The water which they drank was 
yellow, thick, and foul. Bits of oxhide were taken from 
the rigging of the ships and after being soaked in the sea 
and broiled, were eagerly eaten. While in the Straits of 
Magellan, many of his men wanted to turn back, but the 
'^Prince of Navigators," with his '^ heart of triple bronze" 
set his massive jaw and said ^'No." He said that he 
would keep on even if he had to eat the leather of the 
ship's yards — which he was later compelled to do. 

Magellan's own troubles came to an end in the Philip- 
pines. He was killed by the savages there about a year 
and a half after his departure from Spain. Misfortunes 
never seem to come singly. Accidents also befell his ships. 



228 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Two of them were wrecked and one of them was set on 
fire and abandoned when she became leaky. Only one 
remained — the little Victoria — and she sailed back by 
way of the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope, 
after an absence of three years. She had eighteen half- 
starved survivors on board. Two hundred thirty-nine 
men had embarked in the five vessels three years before. 

The men who had been around the world were greatly 
honored. The king invited them to his court and listened 
with great interest to the story of the voyage — the great- 
est one ever made. To the captain of the Victoria, the 
king gave a sum of money, also a coat of arms, upon which 
was a globe, with this inscription, written in Latin, ^^Thou 
first encompassed me." The importance of this voyage 
can hardly be estimated. It proved clearly that the earth 
is a sphere. It also disclosed the immense width of the 
Pacific Ocean. It showed also that there is much more 
water than land upon the globe, and finally that America 
is a New World and not simply a part of Asia as Colum- 
bus had thought. 

The voyage also called attention to some strange geo- 
graphical facts. The captain of the Victoria reached the 
Cape Verde Islands, as he thought, on the ninth of July. 
He found, however, that it was really the tenth. What 
had become of the lost day? The sailors were puzzled 
and greatly worried. They were afraid, among other 
things, that the fasts and saints' days which they had 
observed had been observed on wrong dates. Finally, an 
Italian scientist gave them the correct explanation, w^hich, 
by the way, an old Arabian geographer knew all about 
more than two hundred years before. 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 229 

The desire for eastern trade was also whetted by this 
voyage, as it was shown that the profits were amazingly 
large. The Victoria's cargo, composed for the most part 
of twenty-six tons of cloves, was sold for enough to pay 
the entire expense of the expedition. 

The Voyages of the French. And now France began 
to wake up and take an interest in eastern trade. Francis 
I, the king of France, wanted to share the prizes and 
so he sent John Verrazzano, an Italian sea-rover and 
gentleman pirate, in search of the new route to India. 
He did not find the route, but he did explore the 
Atlantic coast from the Cape Fear River to Newfound- 
land and then, owing to a lack of provisions, he sailed 
away to France (1524), where he was received with 
great honor. Verrazzano had plans for the founding of 
colonies and the doing of missionary work among the 
Indians, but his career was brought to a close when 
he was hanged as a pirate, three years after his return 
from America. 

Cartier in the St. Lawrence (1534). Visions of the 
wealth of the Indies and of a new France on the other 
side of the Atlantic continued to fill the minds of French- 
men. French exploration was carried on by Jacques 
Cartier. This experienced navigator and fisherman set 
out with two ships in 1534, hoping to find a strait to the 
northwest which would lead him to the land of Marco 
Polo. He reached the broad mouth of the St. Lawrence 
River and there in the presence of a band of Indians set 
up a wooden cross, thirty feet in height. He sailed a 
short distance up the river, now absolutely sure that he 
was on the high road to China. When the colder weather 



230 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



and the autumn storms came on, however, he kidnapped 
a few Indians and sailed back to France. 

In the following spring, Cartier and his sailors gathered 
in the Cathedral of St. Malo, went to confession, listened 
to the mass, and received the blessings of the Bishop. 
They then set out for the New World. This time Cartier 




Cartier at Montreal 

sailed up the St. Lawrence to the present site of Montreal 
(meaning Ro^^al Mountain) and gave to the place the name 
which it now bears. A few miles farther on, his course 
was checked by the rapids, since called Lachine (meaning 
China) because Cartier and his men thought that they were 
well on their way to China,. 

The Indians had never seen such men before and mar- 
veled at them. They could hardly believe that they were 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 231 

men. They seemed to be gods or visitors from some far- 
off planet. The redmen crowded about the strangers 
crying in deUght, caressing their beards, feeUng of their 
clothing and rubbing their rough faces, and looking with 
awe at their armor and firearms. The sick and the maimed 
also came to Cartier and asked him to cure them by his 
miraculous power. He read prayers over them and then 
the Indian women spread a great feast, consisting of fish, 
corn, beans, and other things. The Frenchmen did not 
eat, however, as the food was not particularly clean. 

Cartier and his men spent the winter on board their 
ships and suffered terribly from the cold. They had never 
experienced anything like it before. They said that the 
ice was ''above two fathoms (twelve feet) thick" and 
''snow above four feet high and more." Twenty-five men 
died of scurvy and were buried in the snow, as graves 
could not be dug for them in the frozen ground. At one 
time, a hundred out of a hundred and ten were on the 
sick list. They reported upon their return to France that 
they were quickly cured of the disease by drinking the 
juice of the leaves of a certain tree which had been pointed 
out to them by the Indians. The Indians called this won- 
derful tree the "Ameda" but just what it was, we do not 
know. Some have thought it the spruce, others the arbor 
vitae, and still others the sassafras. 

In the spring, when the ice melted, the survivors were 
glad enough to go back to their homes in France. 

Cartier, however, was not the kind of man to give up 
easily; so, a few years later (1541), we find him again 
preparing to visit the New World. He crossed the At- 
lantic, pierced the fog banks of Newfoundland, and sailing 



232 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



past ^'the island rocks, crowded with screaming sea-fowl, 
and the forests breathing piny odors from the shore, cast 
anchor again beneath the cliffs of Quebec." This time he 
brought cattle, goats, and hogs with him and expected to 
found a colony. He built a rude fort on the beautiful 
spot where Quebec now stands, but he remained there 




L L P0AT6S CO., N.Y 



Early French Settlements 

only a few months. When he went back to France, he 
took with him some shiny rock crystals, which he thought 
were diamonds. These quartz crystals may still be found 
at some places on the St. Lawrence. 

Cartier, too, failed to find the strait leading to Asia, but 
his voyage gave the French a claim to the St. Lawrence 
region. Along the great river the French hoped, at some 
future time, to estabUsh the kingdom of New France in 
America. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 233 

The Strait Leading to India. And now what about the 
long-sough t-f or strait leading to India? Men kept on 
seeking for it, but no one found it, simply because there 
was no strait to be found. To solve the problem, the 
United States made a waterway — the Panama Canal — 
near the route which Balboa traversed just four hundred 
years before. The problem of a western strait was solved 
by the shovel. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. What is the explanation of the "lost day"? 

2. Do you not wonder at the fact that the work of these explorers was 
so little appreciated while they lived? 

3. Notice as you go along what permanent mark these early voyagers 
have left on the map of the world — Americus Vespucius, America; Magellan, 
Straits of Magellan ; Cartier, Lachine Rapids, etc. 

4. What great good came of the attempts to find the strait leading to Asia? 

5. What do you think of our government's solution of this problem? 

6. Notice the changing conception of the ''known world" since Greek 
and Roman days. Summarize the steps that changed man's notion of the 
size and shape of the earth. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Balboa, bal-bo'a La Plata, la pla'td 

Cabot, kab'wt Malo. ma/Io 

Darien. da'rl-6n' PhiUppines. fil'I-pinz 

Jacques Cartier. zhak kar'tya San Roque. san ro'ka 

Lachine. Id-shen' Verrazzano. v6r'rat-sa'no 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 

The men of Europe began to see, after a time, that the 
New World might be more important than the Indies. 
So some of them gave up the rainbow chase for a strait 



234 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

leading to India and began the exploration and conquest 
of America. In this work, the Spaniards took the lead. 

Cortez Conquers Mexico (1519-1521). The Spaniards 
started out from Haiti and took possession of Porto Rico 
and Cuba. From Cuba a bold adventurer, named Her- 
nando Cortez, set out at about the same time that Magellan 
was beginning his famous voyage, to conquer and plunder 
the rich Indian tribes of what we now call Mexico. Cortez 
was the son of a poor country gentleman in Spain and a man 
of courage, shrewdness, and audacity. He was secretary to 
the governor of Cuba, who appointed him to command the 
expedition which was to make a conquest of Mexico. 

On the tenth of February, 1519, Cortez set out with 
eleven vessels, carrying five hundred fifty Spaniards, about 
two hundred or three hundred Indians, one negro, and 
sixteen horses. He landed near San Juan and soon made 
his way inland to the city of Mexico, the capital of the 
kingdom. Good fortune seemed to attend him from the 
very outset. Just when defeat seemed certain, Cortez 
would somehow come out victor by a brilliant stroke of 
some kind. 

The Aztec kingdom which Cortez was fighting was a 
sort of league or confederacy of Indian tribes under an 
emperor or king called Montezuma. The Aztecs were 
good fighters, although they apparently knew nothing of 
the use of iron. They were skillful archers and used their 
club-like swords with terrible effect. These swords were 
double edged, the cutting parts being made of a sharp 
glassy stone called obsidian. 

The Spaniards were, of course, better armed. They 
carried the rude firearms of their day and their bodies 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 



235 



were protected by heavy armor. Their horses also were 
exceedingly useful in the fight. The Indians had never 
seen such strange and terrible monsters before and took 
to their heels at the first sight of them. When they 
stopped running, they usually got behind a tree or a wall 
and peeped timidly out to see what the strange animals 
were going to do. The Aztecs largely out-numbered the 
invaders, but as the Spanish 
soldier was "si bulldog for 
strength and courage," he came 
out triumphant in the end. 

Cortez believed that when a 
man set out to do a thing, he 
should never give up; so be- 
fore starting inland, he had all 
of his ships scuttled and sunk 
so that his men might have 
no thought of returning to 
Cuba. Cortez did not tell his 
men at first what his purpose 
was in destroying the ships and 
as they disappeared one at a 
time, the men became suspicious and began to upbraid their 
commander. Finally when there was only one ship left, 
Cortez called his men together and told them that their 
vessels had been destroyed because there was no further 
use for them. ^' Brave men," he said, do ^'not care for a 
means of retreat. I have, however," he continued, '^ saved 
one ship to carry the cowards back to their homes and all 
who wish to go on board will please step forward." No 
one stepped forward, of course, and Cortez proceeded 




Montezuma 



236 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

to overthrow the Aztec kingdom with his handful of 
men. 

This was a strange march to the capital city of Mexico. 
The land was rich in precious metals and there was evi- 
dence on every hand of a high degree of civilization — 
much higher than the Europeans had found elsewhere in 
America. The Spaniards saw works of art, fine palaces, and 
beautiful temples and they rubbed their eyes and asked 
each other if they were dreaming. It seemed very much 
like a fairy land. 

But they also saw many disgusting spectacles. They 
saw evidences of cannibalism and of human sacrifice. The 
altars of the temples were still wet with the blood of the 
victims and others were waiting to be offered up. These 
repulsive sights stirred the wrath of Cortez and more than 
once he smashed the idols, cleansed the temples of their 
reeking filth, liberated the intended victims, and had mass 
said after the w^hole place had been sprinkled with holy 
water. 

Several things aided Cortez in his enterprise. In the 
first place, there were many Aztecs who did not like 
Montezuma — no ruler can please every one — and these 
were only too glad to join the Spaniards. In the second 
place, a beautiful young Indian girl, named Marina, 
joined the expedition and proved to be of great assistance 
to Cortez. She was exceedingly keen and bright. She 
knew two Indian languages and picked up the Spanish 
very readily. She also aided Cortez with her knowledge 
of the country and of the people and became so useful 
to him that Montezuma and others called him, ^Hhe Lord 
of Marina." 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 



237 



There was also a tradition among the Aztecs to the 
effect that one of their gods — "a, fair-haired god of the 
sky" — had been banished into the sea and that he would 
return to them in more prosperous times. When the 
Aztecs saw the strange Spanish ships nearing their shores, 
they were sure that their ^^fair god" was coming back to 
them. Even after they saw Cortez and his men, face to 
face, they believed that they were more than human and 
possessed of god-like power. The white faces, the thick 
beards, the shining 




The Scene of the Conquest by Cortez 



arms, the roaring 
cannon, and the 
neighing steeds all 
tended to increase 
the awe of the na- 
tives and to make 
them shrink from 
an attack. Why 
fight against ^'children of the sun" who can read your 
very thoughts and whose bodies your weapons cannot 
harm? Cortez knew exactly how the natives felt and was 
shrewd enough to make use of this knowledge. 

Cortez Reaches the City of Mexico. Finally the capital 
city of Mexico appeared in view. The Spaniards opened 
their eyes in wonder and amazement. Such a city they 
had not seen in the New World. It stood in the midst 
of a lake and was reached by four causeways or roads of 
solid stone from twenty to thirty feet in width. Near 
the city were drawbridges, across which the roads con- 
tinued to the temple, which stood in the middle of the 
great square. The people walked about on the cement 



238 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

walks or paddled their canoes from place to place as they 
saw fit. Immense houses of red stone Uned the walks. 
There were flower gardens on the roofs and floating gar- 
dens on the lake in which maize, beans, tomatoes, and other 
vegetables grew. In the market-place, criminals were 
tried and sentenced and Aztec barbers shaved the scanty 
beards of the natives with razors of obsidian. The place 
where human beings were offered up as sacrifices to the 
idols was really too hideous and horrible for description. 

The city of Mexico had about sixty thousand inhabi- 
tants when Cortez and his men came into it as unwelcome 
guests early in the November of 1519. Montezuma gave 
the Spaniards a large house near the temple which they 
used for their lodgings. This one house was large enough 
to accommodate the four hundred and fifty Spaniards and 
about one thousand Indians who had joined the army of 
Cortez. Montezuma was made a prisoner, although he 
was treated with the greatest of kindness and considera- 
tion by the Spaniards. 

Cortez was carrying things with a high hand in the city 
of Mexico when the news came to him in the spring (1520) 
that an army of twelve hundred soldiers had landed in 
Mexico, having been sent by the governor of Cuba for 
the purpose of arresting the conqueror. With his usual 
decision and promptness of action, Cortez marched with 
three hundred men to the coast and captured the invading 
army, almost before its commander knew what was going 
on. And then at the head of the combined Spanish forces 
he set out again for the city of Mexico. 

On the twenty-fourth of June, he entered the city for a 
second time, without opposition. He was surprised, how- 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 



239 



ever, when he found the streets silent and deserted, save 
for a few Azetcs who shot hostile glances at him from their 
doorways. It was a suspicious reception and a little later, 




CoRTEZ Fighting the Aztecs 



i( 



a hoarse sound arose, like the murmur of distant waters, 
and soon the imprisoned Spaniards from their tower saw 
pyramids, streets, and house-tops black with raging war- 
riors." The Spaniards had been led into a trap. The 
slaughter was terrible. The Spanish cannon cut wide 
swaths into the Aztec ranks and the canals of the city were 



240 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

said to have run red with blood. The Indians^ utterly- 
reckless as to their own safety, fought like hornets and 
stung the Spaniards with their burning arrows. Cortez 
ordered Montezuma to go out upon the roof of a building 
and try to pacify his people. He did so, but a shower of 
stones and darts struck him down and he died a few 
days later. 

Cortez then, fearing that his army might be shut up 
within the city and starved, made up his mind to abandon 
the city in the night. Again the Spaniards met with no 
resistance for a time. The streets were deserted and all 
seemed to be going well, when suddenly the Aztecs fell 
upon the luckless Spaniards with terrible fury. Cortez 
lost seven hundred and fifty men in addition to four 
thousand allies and sixty horses. His cannon were at 
the botton of the lake and forty Spaniards were waiting 
to be offered up as sacrifices to the god of war. ^^Then 
Cortez sat down upon the rock and buried his face in his 
hands and wept." This awful time has since been called 
'Hhe Sad Night." 

Not for a moment, however, did Cortez think of giving 
up the fight. He gathered up the remnants of his army, 
sent for more men and horses, rallied Indians to his ban- 
ner, and began his famous siege of the city of Mexico on 
the twenty-eighth of April, 1521 — the day of the death 
of Magellan in the Philippines. The Spaniards took the 
city, after one hundred and seven days of the fiercest 
fighting. Canals and sidewalks were clogged with dead 
bodies and the whole city was a scene of desolation. The 
power of the Aztec confederacy, however, was broken and 
Mexico passed into the control of Spain. A great change 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 



241 



took place in the capital city. The temple, reeking with 
the blood of its innocent victims, was demolished and a 
Christian church was erected upon the spot. Pious monks 
followed in the wake of Cortez and continued the work 
of casting down the idols, but in a different way. 

De Soto Discovers the Mississippi River (1541). Cortez, 
however, was not the only Spaniard to explore and con- 
quer lands for his country. Twenty years after Cortez 
left Cuba for his con- 
quest of Mexico, Her- 
nando de Soto began 
his famous expedition. 

De Soto was a bril- 
liant young Spaniard 
who started life '^with 
nothing but his sword 
and shield," but 
achieved both fame and 
fortune. He took a 




GULF 

M E X I CO 

^Outlines and navies of states did /i'/ij 

not exist at this period, but are ^^ 

given for convenience of student Jui^,? 

in tracing De Soto's course.) '^' ' 



one 



prominent part in the rj,^^ route of De Soto's Expedition 
Spanish conquest of 

Peru and returned to Spain with a large fortune. In 
addition to this, the king of Spain, being very grateful 
to him for his services, made him governor of Cuba and 
gave him a commission to make a conquest of the whole 
southern part of what is now the United States. 

De Soto sailed from Havana in May, 1539, with nine 
ships, carrying six hundred and twenty men, two hundred 
and twenty-three horses, and a large drove of hogs. He 
intended to colonize as well as to conquer. He landed at 
Tampa Bay, Florida, and began his laborious march into 



242 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

the interior. After floundering about in the swamps and 
jungles of the Gulf region for two years, he discovered the 
Mississippi River in the spring of 1541. One of the mem- 
bers of De Soto's party described the great river when 
they first saw it as follows: ''The river was almost half 
a league broad. If a man stood on the other side it 
could not be discerned whether he were a man or no. 
The river was of great depth, and of a strong current; 
the water was always muddy; there came down the river 
continually many trees and timber." 

Early in June, De Soto crossed the river a short dis- 
tance south of the place where the city of Memphis now 
stands. It was no easy task to cross the broad, swift stream 
and it took De Soto and his men a whole month to build 
barges for that purpose. After crossing the river, they 
again pushed westward through swamp, thicket, and tangle. 
The weather was so cold and the snow so deep that they 
were compelled to stay in rude houses most of the winter. 

De Soto came out of his winter quarters much worn by 
the hardships of the expedition and soon was a very sick 
man. His end was drawing near and he knew that he 
would never again return to Cuba. Brave unto the end, 
however, he called his men together, bade them farewell, 
and named another to succeed him in the command. On 
the following day, the twenty-first of May, 1542, he died 
of swamp fever and his body was taken out in a canoe and 
sunk in the middle of the great river which he had dis- 
covered. His men did not want the Indians to know 
that he had died. 

With the death of De Soto the soul of the expedition 
was gone. Numerous misfortunes befell the luckless band. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 243 

The Indians were hostile and provisions ran short. All 
of the pigs and about twenty-two of their horses had been 
killed for food. The men had about reached the giving-up 
point and their great leader was no longer present to give 
them new courage. They then built rafts and rude boats 
and floated down the river in the midst of danger from the 
current and also from the Indians along the bank, as they 
had no fire-arms of any kind. They reached the sea in 
sixteen days and then made their way along the Gulf 
coast and finally reached the Spanish settlements in Mexico. 
''Thus ended the most remarkable exploring expedition in 
the history of North America." 

It took De Soto's men four years, three months, and 
eleven days to make the journey from Tampa Bay to 
Mexico. Six hundred and twenty men started out on the 
expedition and only three hundred and eleven returned. 
The Spaniards were looking for gold and land and the 
redmen did not receive them very cordially. Cruelties 
were practiced on both sides. Many a poor Indian was 
torn to pieces by the fierce dogs of the Spanish explorers 
and De Soto's men suffered grievously from the stealthy 
night attacks of the savages. On one occasion, the Span- 
iards went into winter quarters in an Indian village in 
the northern part of what is now the state of Mississippi. 
Without warning the Indians fell upon the village at mid- 
night with fire and slaughter. Some of the Spaniards 
were killed and most of those who escaped lost their 
clothing and provisions in the fire. Several hundred hogs 
and about fifty horses were burned. Before the march 
could be resumed, clothing had to be made for the men 
from the skins of wild animals. 



244 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



The Spaniards were not on the march, of course, during 
the entire four years. They stopped now and then, some- 
times for long periods, to rest the men and to fatten the 
horses. Sometimes they had plenty of good food and again 
their rations were short. They lived on wild turkeys and 
partridges which they shot and the pigs which they brought 
with them. They also got corn and beans from the Indians 

and found grapes, 
plums, and mulber- 
ries growing wild. 

In the course of 
time, many other 
conquests on the 
American continent 
were made by the 
Spaniards. To-day 
their descendants are 
scattered all the way 
from Texas to Cape 
Horn and have done 
much to improve 
the civilization of 
this vast area. 







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Carmel jNIission Near Monterey, California 

The Spaniards established their missions 
wherever they made permanent settlements. 
These missions were the centers of religion and 
education. The buildings, many of which are 
still standing, are interesting and quaint. 



The Spanish Missions. The Spaniards kept steadily 
in view their idea of converting the Indians to the Chris- 
tian religion and as soon as the explorer had blazed the 
way through the forest with sword and axe, the priest 
and monk followed with the crucifix. The fort was 
scarcely finished before the chapel and school appeared at 
its side. In Mexico and California, religion and educa- 
tion followed conquest. The priests and monks were tire- 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 245 

less in preaching, baptizing, and teaching the Indians the 
ways of civihzation. In a short time, the temples of the 
idols, their sides reeking with the blood of innocent 
victims, began to give way to Christian chapels with their 
lessons of peace and love. The monks were so much in 
earnest about their work that sometimes when they were 
not able to induce the Indians to attend their schools, 
they compelled them to do so by kidnapping. This was 
probably the beginning of compulsory education in 
America. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Notice that Spain made it possible for Columbus to make his voyages. 
Spain also took the lead in the exploration and settlement of the new world. 

2. The remains of many of the old Spanish Missions are still to be seen 
in Southwestern United States and in Mexico. 

3. Why were the Spaniards so eager to conquer Mexico? 

4. It was a Spanish priest, Las Casas, who persuaded Charles V in 1542 
to put an end to Indian slavery. In order to save the Indians he advised 
the planters to obtain negroes. This he afterward regretted. Through 
his efforts, however, the Indians on the mainland were saved from 
extermination. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Aztec, az'tek Marina, mii-re'na 

Hernando Cortez. Har-nan'do Montezuma, mon' te-zoo'md 

kor'tgz obsidian. 6b-sid'I-dn 

Hernando de Soto, de so'to San Juan, san hwan 
Las Casas. las ka'sas 



246 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

CHAPTER XXII 
ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 

''There has been no greater period in English history than the 
reign of Elizabeth." — Cheyney. 

If we had time, we might tell other stories of Spanish 
exploration and conquest just as interesting and heroic 
as those which have been told. We might tell of the 
exploits of Ponce de Leon, who explored what is now 
Florida (1513), searching for a suitable site for a colony 
and also for the mythical ^'Fountain of Youth" whose 
waters, it was said, would prevent one from growing old. 

We might also follow Coronado in his search for the 
famous ^' Seven Cities." He had been told that somewhere 
in the interior of the continent there were seven large and 
wealthy cities, whose inhabitants lived in palatial stone 
houses and used kitchen utensils made of gold and silver. 
These tales lured Coronado and his men into the dark 
interior. For three years they tramped about in the south- 
western wilderness. Some of them went into what is 
now Kansas and some of them gazed with awe upon the 
Grand Canyon of the Colorado. They found the ''Seven 
Cities," but they did not find marble palaces adorned 
with gold and silver — nothing but rude Indian houses. 
They finally saw that they were the victims of idle tales. 

Now Balboa, Cortez, De Soto, Ponce de Leon, and 
Coronado were all Spaniards. The Spaniards had ex- 
plored very extensively in North, South, and Central 
America. In fact, practically all of the exploring that had 



ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 



247 



been done in the New World, except what the French had 
done in the St. Lawrence region, was carried on by the 
Spaniards. The New World had been discovered by the 
Spaniards and the Pope's Line (see map, page 221) had 
given them all of the American continents with the ex- 
ception of Brazil. It would seem from this that Spain was 




CORONADO ON THE MaRCH 

in a fair way to get possession of nearly all of the New 
World. She did not do so, however, and we must now 
seek the reasons why. 

In the first place the Pope's Line was no longer respected 
as it once was. Conditions had changed. The Pope was 
no longer the head of all the Christians in Europe. Many 
people had become dissatisfied with the Roman Church. 
They protested against certain practices of the church and 
were called Protestants, The greatest leader of the Prot- 



248 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

estants and one of the founders of the Protestant Church, 
was Martin Luther of Germany. Twenty-four years 
after the Pope's Line was drawn (1517), Luther de- 
clared that certain practices of the Roman Church were 
not in harmony with the true doctrines of the Christian 
Church. This declaration was made in writing and was 
posted on the door of a church in Germany. The posting 
of this document marks the beginning of that movement 
known in history as the Protestant Reformation. The 
Protestants made considerable headway in Europe, espe- 
cially in the northern part, and, naturally enough, those 
peoples who had broken away from the Roman Church 
no longer felt bound by the Pope's Line. England, for 
example, had become largely Protestant by the time of 
Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603) and felt quite independent 
of the Pope. 

In the second place we should remember that the na- 
tions of Europe in the sixteenth century were not very 
particular about the right and wrong of things. If they 
really wanted to have a certain piece of territory, they 
could easily find an excuse for taking it — provided 
they were strong enough. It was a case of ''might 
makes right" and the weaker nations suffered. 

A hundred years had passed since the discovery of 
America before the nations of Europe really took up the 
colonization of America in earnest. During that hundred 
years, important changes had taken place. France and 
England had increased very greatly in strength but Spain 
had not. In some respects, she had become weaker. The 
Spaniards had done more than any other people in the 
discovery and exploration of the New World, and had 



ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 249 

strong claims to large parts of North, South, and Central 
America. But when the work of colonization really began 
in earnest, England, France, and Holland were strong 
enough to ignore these claims and to colonize some of the 
choicest parts of America. At the start, Spain had a 
great advantage over her rivals, but when the scramble for 
territory came, she was no match for them in strength. 
The Spaniard blazed the trail and Europeans of other 
nations followed in his wake. 

England in the Days of Elizabeth. One of the strongest 
and most successful of these rivals was England. The 
English were a hardy, vigorous, and enterprising race of 
men and in the course of time made their country one 
of the strongest on the globe. Henry VII was the king of 
England when Columbus discovered the New World. He 
was the same king that sent John Cabot on his famous 
expedition to the coast of North America. It was in 
Henry's time, also, that the Revival of Learning reached 
England. This made a great change. England became 
more wide-awake and enterprising than she had ever been 
before, and by the time of Ehzabeth (the granddaughter 
of Henry) she was sending her bold sea-rovers to the 
remotest parts of the globe. 

Queen Elizabeth was one of the ablest monarchs that 
ever occupied the English throne and came into power 
just at the time when the colonization of the New World 
was being talked of everywhere. And now wide-awake 
England, under her equally wide-awake queen, was ready 
to contest the possession of America with Spain and the 
other nations. She enjoyed such contests and was eager 
for the fray. 



250 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 




Queen Elizabeth was a vigorous and intelligent young 
woman of twenty-five when she came to the throne of 
England. She was well educated and could speak and 
write Latin, French, and ItaHan. She had studied Greek 
and spoke and wrote strong, vigorous English. She was 

bold and self-reliant and re- 
markably well posted upon 
problems of government. 

On the other hand, she was 
vain and conceited and not 
particularly refined. She was 
very fond of fine clothes and 
loved to display them in public. 
But Elizabeth loved England 
and governed in the interest 
of the whole people and not 
of any one class. She was 
of queenly bearing, had an 

intelligent but not beautiful 
Queen Elizabeth ^^^^^ ^ j^f^^ ^p.^.^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ 

character. She was also "si bold horsewoman, a good 
shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled musician, atid an accom- 
plished scholar." 

She liked to have her own way and sometimes allowed 
her temper to flame out in bursts of anger. On one 
occasion, she soundly boxed the ears of her adviser when 
he did something to displease her. But, on the whole, 
Ehzabeth was a good and strong ruler and her reign was 
the greatest period in English history up to that time. 

Sir Walter Raleigh. One of the men who helped to 
make the reign of Elizabeth illustrious was Sir Walter 









ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 



251 



Raleigh. England now has a colonial empire which girdles 
the globe. The sun never sets on English colonies. The 
beginning of this great empire she owes to Raleigh. 
Raleigh was a famous sea-rover, soldier, colonizer, and 
adventurer. He was born in England near the sea and 




The Boy Raleigh Listening to Tales of Adventure 

spent a large part of his boyhood days in Hstening to the 
sailors recounting their voyages of adventure. He also 
read all of the books which he could get relating to great 
sea voyages. He was a student at Oxford University and 
later aided the Dutch in their fight for liberty against 
Spain. He spent a great deal of time at the queen's 
court and became a great favorite with her. He was tall 



252 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

and striking in appearance, with wavy hair and bright 
blue eyes. His wit was exceedingly nimble, his manner 
gracious and attractive. In a word, he was a natural 
born gentleman as brave as he was generous. 

There is a story told of him which may or may not be 
true, but it is quite in keeping with the character of the 
man. The queen was walking one day with one of the 
ladies of the court, when, it is said, she came to a mud 
puddle. She did not wish, of course, to put her daintily 
slippered feet into the mire, and so she hesitated for a 
moment. Quick as a flash, Raleigh, who saw the queen's 
hesitation, snatched a beautiful plush coat from his shoul- 
ders and spread it out for the foot of the queen to tread 
upon. Elizabeth walked across on the luxurious carpet 
which Raleigh had provided for her and later gave him 
rich rewards in offices and estates. 

There is another story told of Sir Walter Raleigh which 
is of an entirely different character. It is said that he 
was the first man in England to smoke tobacco and that, 
as he was enjoying a quiet smoke one day, one of his ser- 
vants entered the room carrying a pot of ale. The servant 
was horrified at seeing the smoke coming out of the mouth 
of his master and, thinking that he must be burning on the 
inside, he instantly dashed the contents of the pot upon 
his head, hoping to put out the fire. 

Raleigh, however, was too much of a man to be content 
with fine clothes, polite manners, and the favor of the 
queen. He wanted to do something and he had visions 
of a great English empire beyond the seas. We shall see 
later how he put his ideas into practice and became a 
pioneer in the English colonization of North America. 



ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 253 

The English Seamen of the Sixteenth Century. Raleigh 
was only one of a group of brilliant English seamen who 
plowed the ocean in the sixteenth century. They were 
adventurers and explorers and, if the truth must be told, 
pirates. They sailed out to challenge the supremacy of 
Spain on the ocean and hked nothing better than to chase, 
overhaul, and plunder a rich Spanish treasure ship. Of 
course, this was piracy, as the two nations were not at 
war. But the Enghsh of the sixteenth century did not 
frown very seriously upon the practice. 

In addition to love of the chase and gold, there was 
another reason, as we have already seen, why the English 
sea-rovers loved to smite the Spaniards. The EngUsh 
were Protestants and the Spaniards Roman Cathohcs and 
there was a bitter religious hatred between the two. The 
Protestants believed that in fighting the Spaniards they 
were striking down the enemies of God; the Spaniards, 
on the other hand, looked upon the Protestants in England 
very much as they might look upon the infidel Turk. 
And so whenever English and Spanish crews met upon the 
high seas, there was war to the knife and no quarter 
given or asked. 

English seamen also sold African slaves to Spanish 
colonists against the wishes of Spain. In 1562, John 
Hawkins, of Plymouth, England, captured three hundred 
negroes on the coast of Africa and sold them to the 
Spaniards at Santo Domingo. The king of Spain pro- 
tested against this, but to no avail. A short time later, 
Hawkins again appeared in the West Indies with a dusky 
cargo and disposed of his slaves in spite of the opposition 
of the governors. 



254 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



A few years later (1572) Francis Drake, one of the 
greatest of the sea-rovers and a relative of Hawkins, started 
out deliberately to plunder the Spaniards. He appeared 
suddenly in the harbors of the West Indies, captured and 
plundered vessels lying at anchor in the ports, set fire to 
the towns, and put to the sword all those who dared to 
resist him. He met a train of mules bringing rich loads 

of gold and silver from the 
mines of Peru and promptly 
relieved them of their treas- 
ures. On his way back to 
England, he pounced upon and 
looted a Spanish treasure ship. 
All of this was piracy and 
highway robbery, of course, 
but the EngUsh people, includ- 
ing the queen, applauded his 
exploits and laughed at the 
protests of Spain. Evidently 
the time was coming when the 
two great nations ^' would have 
it out." 
Drake Sails Around the World (1577-1580). Drake, 
however, had an ambition to do greater things than plun- 
der Spanish ships. In 1577, he sailed west with five ships 
and about one hundred fifty men. Not one of the com- 
pany, with the exception of Drake himself, knew where 
the expedition was going. They went to the West Indies 
and then sailed down the coast of South America to the 
Straits of Magellan. After passing through these straits 
in the wake of the great Magellan, Drake met frightful 




Sir Francis Drake 



ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 



255 



storms on the Pacific. One of his vessels turned back and 
three others were lost. The remaining men also wanted to 
beat a retreat, but Drake would not listen to them. He 
landed on a barren shore long enough to hang one of the 
leaders of the mutiny and then sailed up the west coast 
of South America. With one small vessel, the Pelican, 
and less than one hundred men, he passed along the coast 
of Chili and Peru, plundering as he went. He would dart 









4, ' 



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/SPAIN/ 'iva^^-'-ia %^ ' J5«f r<- 

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P ^ C ,i'''i^ / 



INDIAN \C/ffir:,^^ 
^^„-''' I AUSTRALIA ■ 



f; 



Drake's voyage. 




St r.of Magellan 



Drake's Voyage around the Globe 



suddenly into a port, plunder the ships lying at anchor, 
go on shore and seize the stores of gold, silver, and 
precious stones, and then quickly sail away, leaving his 
victims dumbfounded and with their pockets turned 
inside out. Finally, he came opposite the present site of 
San Francisco, seeking now for a passage through the con- 
tinent by which he might return to England. Finding 
none, he sailed westward across the Pacific, through the 
East Indies, and back to England by way of the Cape of 
Good Hope. 



256 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

This was the second voyage around the globe. The 
Pelican had followed in the wake of Magellan's ship, the 
Victoria. She '^was loaded with bars of gold, boxes of 
precious stones, and tons of silver, amounting in value to 
some four million dollars." This rich booty was divided 
among the promoters of the expedition and the queen and 
Drake himself had large shares in the Spanish wealth. 

It might be interesting for a moment to take a glance 
at the boyhood of Sir Francis Drake. The hulk of an old 
ship, moored off an English dockyard, was the boyhood 
home of Sir Francis. Here he heard the sailors sing their 
songs and listened with rapt attention to tales of adven- 
ture on the sea. He grew up to be a sturdy and self- 
reliant lad and found employment on a ship sailing from 
France to Holland. While in Holland he saw the cruel 
way in which the king of Spain oppressed his Dutch sub- 
jects and came to hate him very cordially for it. At a 
later time, Drake and Hawkins, his relative, were com- 
pelled to seek the shelter of a Spanish port in the Gulf of 
Mexico. Here the Spaniards attacked them and destroyed 
one half of their ships, although they had promised not 
to harm them. From that time on, Hawkins and Drake 
took great delight in goading the Spaniards wherever they 
found them. We shall meet Sir Francis Drake later when 
he sets out to ''singe the beard of the King of Spain." 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Compare Magellan and Drake as to route, purpose, and results of 
expeditions. 

2. Read in any good history of England an account of Elizabeth's reign. 
"Was she a "good and strong ruler"? Would she be so considered to- 
day? 



FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 257 

3. Is there any geographical exploration going on at the present time? 
See, if you can, a copy of the "National Geographic Magazine." It is in 
all Hbraries. 

4. Do you think Spain had just cause for complaint against Drake and 
Hawkins? 

5. Why did Spain seem to be the rightful possessor of most of the 
New World? 

6. Why was Raleigh the favorite with Queen EUzabeth? What is the 
most important work that he did? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Chili, chiri Ponce de Leon, pon'tha da la-6n' 

Coronado. ko'ro-na'do Raleigh, ro'll 

Peru, pe-rdo' 



CHAPTER XXIII 
FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 

Poor Spain was beset by enemies on every side. Not 
only England, but France as well, wished to share in the 
profits and glories of the New World. Spain was like a 
dog with a juicy bone. She soon found other nations 
snarling about her and ready to grab her prize. 

Wars between France and Spain in Europe. At the 
time of which we are speaking, Charles I was king of 
Spain and Francis I king of France. These two mon- 
archs looked at each other with jealous and hostile 
eyes and their subjects were almost equally unfriendly. 
Both Charles and Francis wished to be elected Emperor 
of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was chosen and 
Francis, greatly disappointed, nursed his grievance. He 
made an attack upon Charles whenever he had an oppor- 
tunity and for twenty-three years kept up a running fight 
against the emperor. A large part of the fighting was 



258 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

done in Italy and it was in these wars that Chevalier 
Bayard became known to the whole civiUzed world. 

Chevalier Bayard. Bayard was a member of a noble 
French family who entered the service of the Duke of 
Savoy as a page. While in the service of the duke, he 
obtained an excellent training in the duties of the soldier 
and also became skillful in the use of weapons. He was 
so skillful in war, and so brave in personal combat that 
he became known as the '' Invincible. '^ In one great 
battle, in which the king had command in person, Bayard 
fought bravely and contributed largely to the victory 
which saved France. After the close of the contest, the 
king requested that he himself be made a knight and 
that the knighthood be conferred upon him by the brave 
Chevalier. ''Bayard, my friend," said the king, ''I wish 
to-day to be made knight by your hands, because you 
have fought on foot and on horseback in many battles 
and are reputed to be, above all others, the most worthy." 
Bayard hesitated to comply with this request because he 
did not feel himself worthy to bestow knighthood upon 
his king; and so he replied: ''Sire, he who is king of so 
noble a realm is a knight above all other knights." To 
this the king simply answered, "Come, Bayard; make 
haste." Whereupon Bayard drew his sword, conferred 
the order of knighthood upon Francis and then said, 
"Assuredly you are the greatest prince who ever was made 
knight. God grant that in the war you shall never take 
flight." He then flourished his sword in the air and said 
as he put it into the scabbard that he would always 
cherish it as a "sacred relic, honored above all others," 
because it had been used in knighting his king. 



FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 



259 



While fighting for his king and country in northern 
Italy (1524), he was mortally wounded while conducting 
an almost hopeless retreat. His men by whom he was so 
greatly beloved were about to carry him from the field, 



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Death of Bayard 

when he said, '^No, let me die in peace. It is all over with 
me.'^ He died there propped up against a tree and amid 
the whistling of the bullets. 

''It was said of Bayard by military men of his time, 
that he assaulted like a grayhound, defended himself like 



260 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

a lion, and retreated like a wolf, which always retires from 
its pursuers with its face towards them. ... In an 
age which combined strangely coarseness with refinement, 
Chevaher Bayard was admitted by friend and foe, by 
priest and soldier, to be a perfect model of Christian 
knighthood." Is it to be wondered at then that Bayard 
has ever since been called the ''knight without fear and 
without reproach?" 

The French and Spaniards Cross Swords in America. 
The French and Spaniards, however, did not do all of 
their fighting in Italy. They also crossed swords in the 
forests of North America. Francis knew very well that 
North America had been granted to Spain by the Pope's 
Line of 1493, but he said that he saw no good reason why 
the Spaniards should own the whole earth. So in 1524, 
the very year of Bayard's death, he sent out John Ver- 
razzano, an Italian navigator of whom we have heard, in 
an attempt to find an all- water route to the East. He 
failed in this, but he sailed along the Atlantic shore 
of North America from Newfoundland to the Cape Fear 
River. 

Cartier (1534). Ten years later, Cartier, a Frenchman, 
came, as we have already seen, on a similar errand. He, 
I too, was searching for a route to the Indies. Entering the 

mouth of the St. Lawrence River, he sailed up that stream 
I ''until," as he said, "land could be seen on either side." 

He soon returned to France, but came back in the fol- 
lowing year (1535) and sailed up the river to the present 
site of Montreal. 

Coligny and the Huguenots (1562). The first really 
serious attempt on the part of the French to found a 



FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 



261 



colony in the New World was made by Admiral Coligny. 
Coligny was the able leader of a band of French Prot- 
estants, called Huguenots. These Huguenots were being 
persecuted in their native land on account of their re- 
Ugion and Coligny determined to find a haven of rest for 
them in America. So, in 1562, he sent out a company 
of his people under the command of Jean Ribaut. These 
colonists avoided the frozen 
north, where Cartier and his 
men had had such unpleas- 
ant experiences, and turned 
their prows towards the milder 
south. On May Day, Ribaut 
entered the mouth of the St. 
John^s River in Florida and 
named it "the River of May." 
"Never had they known," says 
Francis Parkman, "a fairer 
May Day. . . . The tranquil 
air, the warm sun, woods fresh 
with young verdure, meadows 
bright with flowers; the palm, the cypress, the pine, the 
magnolia; the grazing deer; herons, curlews, bitterns, 
wood-cock, and unknown water-fowl, that waded in the 
ripple of the beach; cedars bearded from crown to root 
with long, gray moss; huge oaks smothering in the folds 
of enormous grapevines; such were the objects that greeted 
them in their roamings, till their new-discovered land seemed 
the ^fairest, fruitfulest and pleasantest of all the world.' " 

Ribaut established a colony on Port Royal Island and 
named the whole country "Carolina," in honor of Charles, 




Admiral Coligny 



262 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

the King of France. The colony was a failure and was 
abandoned within a year. The handful of people remain- 
ing alive at the end of that time were only too glad to get 
back to France. 

Fort Caroline in Florida. Not discouraged by this 
failure, the French made another attempt two years 
later (1564). At first they tried to find some trace of 
Ribaut's colony but were unable to do so, as the remnant 
of it had sailed for home a short time before in a rude 
vessel built by their own hands. Leaving the ill-fated 
site of the Port Royal colony, they pushed on to the River 
of May in Florida. On the bank of that stream, they 
built a rude fort which they named Caroline in honor of 
King Charles. This colony was another weakling. The 
men were not made of the proper stuff. They were shift- 
less and dissolute and could not bear up against disease, 
hunger, and Indian attacks. 

The Destruction of Fort Caroline. In the meantime, 
the Spaniards, who felt that they owned this whole country, 
were looking upon the struggling French colony with hos- 
tile eyes. They regarded the French as intruders in their 
domain and resolved to wipe them out. The Spaniards, 
who were Roman Catholics, were especially bitter towards 
the Huguenots, who were Protestants. 

In 1565, a Spaniard named Menendez came to America 
and founded St. Augustine in Florida and announced his 
intention to ''gibbet and behead all the Protestants in 
these regions." He set about his bloody work at once 
and completely exterminated the French colony on the 
River of ]\Iay. He attacked the fort just before day- 
break in the midst of a driving rain while the French were 



FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 



263 



ill a sound sleep. It was soon over. One hundred and 
thirty dead men lay scattered about the scene of the bloody 
combat. By order of Menendez the women were spared. 
So also were the children under fifteen years of age. 
About fifty other persons also escaped with their lives by 
swimming across the river or by embarking in small boats. 

It is interesting to note 
something more of this Spanish 
soldier. Menendez was one 
of the ablest and most famous 
officers in the Spanish navy. 
He had been a wild and un- 
governable youth. He ran 
away from home at the age 
of eight, but was caught and 
brought back. He ran away 
again and this time got on 
board a fleet which was set- 
ting out against the Barbary 
Corsairs. Menendez delighted 
in battle and slaughter and 
while fighting against the Barbary States, it is quite 
probable that his ^^ appetite for blood and blows" was 
fully satisfied. 

Menendez came to Florida (which had much larger 
dimensions than the present State) with twenty-six hun- 
dred and forty-six persons in thirty-four ships. His flag- 
ship was described as ^^one of the finest ships afloat." 
Menendez held a parley with the French on their boats off 
the mouth of the River of May. He asked them who 
they were. They replied that they were Frenchmen. 




Pedro Menendez 



264 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

''Are you Catholics or Lutherans?" he then asked. ''Lu- 
therans of the new reUgion," cried many voices. "But/' 
said the French, "who are you and where do you come 
from?" The answer came: "I am Pedro Menendez, 
general of the fleet of the King of Spain, Don Philip the 
Second, who have come to this country to hang and be- 
head all Lutherans whom I shall find by land or sea. . . . 
I have power to pardon none. ... At daybreak, I shall 
board your ships." To which the French shouted back 
in derision: "If you are a brave man, don't wait till 
day. Come on now and see what you will get." 

The Attack. When the Spaniards approached the set- 
tlement there was not a sentinel on the ramparts. A 
lone trumpeter, peering through the sheets of rain, saw 
the advancing hosts and blew a loud blast. The half- 
naked soldiers rushed from their quarters, only to be struck 
down by the wolfish Spaniards. One hundred and forty-two 
lay dead in and around the fort. The prisoners Menendez 
hanged on trees and placed over them this inscription, "I 
do this, not as to Frenchmen but as to Lutherans." 
This was the sad ending of Fort CaroUne. "Thus did 
France and Spain dispute the possession of North America 
long before England became a party to the strife." 

The Avenger, Dominic de Gourgues. Presently there 
came a man to take vengeance upon the Spaniards for 
the blood of the French. Dominic de Gourgues was a 
French soldier of high birth and great renown. "He hated 
the Spaniards with a mortal hate," and when he heard of 
the bloody fate of his countrymen in Florida, it is said 
that "his hot blood boiled with fury." He gathered to- 
gether a small party of men and on August 22, 1567, 



FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 265 

sailed away to strike the Spaniard in the New World. 
^^The moon rode high above the lonely sea, and, silvered 
in its light, the ships of the avenger held their course. . . . 
They glided slowly by the somber shores in the shimmering 
moonlight, to the sound of the murmuring surf and the 
moaning pine trees. '^ At noonday they approached the 
Spanish fort and made ready to strike the enemy. The 
Spaniards had just finished their dinner and, according to 
an old writer, 'Svere still picking their teeth" when the 
war cry rang out. The French attacked the fort with 
terrible fury, and skulking Indians cut off the fugitives in 
their attempt to escape. One account says that not a 
single Spaniard got away with his life; another, that a 
few of them escaped to the hills; ''and thus," says Francis 
Parkman, ''did the Spaniards make bloody atonement for 
the butchery of Fort Caroline." 

Near the foot of the fort, the trees were pointed out 
to De Gourgues upon which Menendez had hanged his pris- 
oners. To these trees De Gourgues ordered the Spanish 
captives to be led. After suspending them from the same 
hmbs upon which the French captives had been hung 
three years before, he placed over them a pine board, 
bearing this inscription burned into it with a red-hot 
iron: "Not as to Spaniards, but as to Traitors, Robbers, 
and Murderers." 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Of the three rivals — Spain, England, and France — which seems to 
you to have had the best right to the "New World"? 

2. Take the side of any one of these nations and present its claims to 
your class. 

3. You should realize how Spain was handicapped in this struggle by 
having two such powerful enemies as England and France. 



266 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

4. Tell what you know about the following: Chevalier Bayard, Cartier, 
Coligny, Fort Caroline, Menendez, Jean Ribaut, Huguenots, De Gourgues. 

5. Rule off three columns on a piece of paper. Mark the heads of these 
columns respectively, Spanish, French, EngUsh. Then under each head 
write down as many places as you can think of that were discovered in the 
New World by these peoples. Make your own map showing these places 
and put alongside of each one the name of the explorer who discovered it. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Chevalier Bayard, shgv'd-ler' bi'erd Huguenot. hu'ge-n6t 

Cohgny. ko'len'ye' Jean Ribaut. zhan re'bo' 

Dominic de Gourgues. dom'l-nik Menendez. ma-nen'dath 

de goorg' Savoy, sd-voi' 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE DUTCH FIGHT AGAINST THEIR RULER, 
THE KING OF SPAIN 

Poor Spain was in much trouble. The swords of the 
Dutch were also drawn against her, just when she needed 
all of her strength for the occupation of the New World. 

The Dutch. The Dutch were the inhabitants of Hol- 
land — a small but very important country of western 
Europe. Holland was a part of the Netherlands, which 
at this time was under the control of Spain. 

The word ^^Netherlands" means 'Rowlands" and was 
so called because a large part of the land was below the 
level of the sea. Before its sturdy and industrious in- 
habitants had built their dykes to keep back the ocean 
and their embankments to confine the rivers, the country 
was very often an unbroken sheet of water as far as the 
eye could reach. This morass was not a very promising 
place in which to build homes, but the Dutch were a 



I 



THE DUTCH FIGHT AGAINST THEIR RULER 



267 



strong and determined race and accomplished wonders. 
They built great strong dykes to protect them from the 
ocean and high embankments to keep the rivers within 
bounds. They then turned their swamps and marshes 
into the most beautiful orchards, gardens, and flower beds. 
Great cities grew up and a large part of the commerce 
of northern Europe was carried in Dutch boats. ''I was 
sad when I saw Antwerp," 
said a Venetian traveler, 
''for I saw Venice sur- 
passed." 

The Quarrel with the 
King of Spain. King 
Charles of Spain was the- 
ruler of the Netherlands 
when the Protestant Ref- 
ormation broke out under 
Martin Luther. Many of 
the Dutch had followed 
the teachings of Luther 
and had become staunch 




The Windmills of Holland 

These clumsy structures were used all 
over Holland for pumping water. They 
saved a vast deal of hand labor and were 
picturesque figures on the landscape. 



Protestants. This among other things made Charles very 
angry and he was determined to stamp out the new 
religion in his dominions. In his attempt to do so 
he sent many persons to the stake or to the scaffold. 
However, he made very httle headway and finally left 
the throne and spent the remainder of his life in a 
monastery. 

His successor was his son, Philip II. Philip tried even 
harder than his father had done to stamp out the Prot- 
estant religion in the Netherlands. Philip and his father 



268 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

were both sincere men and thought it their pious duty 
before God to put an end to the Protestant rehgion. 

The "Beggars." The Dutch, sorely persecuted, arose 
in revolt. One of the Spanish leaders in a moment of 
disgust called them the ^^ Beggars" and said that he was 
not afraid of anything they could do. The Dutch imme- 
diately adopted the name and the cry went up, ''Long 
live the Beggars." The fury of the people knew no bounds. 
They gathered in mobs, smashed images in the churches, 
burned libraries, sacked monasteries, and destroyed many 
beautiful works of art. 

The Duke of Alva (1567). Just at the time when De 
Gourgues was taking his terrible vengeance upon the 
Spaniards in Florida, Philip, King of Spain, sent the no- 
torious Duke of Alva to put down the revolt in the 
Netherlands. Alva was able, but merciless. He perse- 
cuted most cruelly on every hand and also levied op- 
pressive taxes. One of these was called ''the Tenth 
Penny" or a tax of ten per cent on the sale of all goods. 
Business was ruined and the people were almost in a 
panic of despair. Catholics also who opposed the oppres- 
sive designs of Alva were made to suffer side by side with 
their Protestant neighbors. 

William of Orange. When a brave people are deter- 
mined to strike for their liberty, a leader usually appears 
to lead them out of bondage. The leader in this case was 
William the Silent, Prince of Orange, who was later called 
"the Founder of Dutch liberties." 

William of Orange is the George Washington of Holland. 
He was a Roman Catholic up to this time, but he now 
became a Protestant. Both as a Protestant and as a 



THE DUTCH FIGHT AGAINST THEIR RULER 



269 



Catholic, however, he set his face firmly against religious 
persecution. He believed that a man had a right to 
worship God in his own way. In this view he was in 
advance of his time. 




William of Orange Pledging His Jewels 

He sold or pawned his estates and his other property, even his furniture, his 
plate, and his jewelry, and borrowed and collected money wherever he could 
in order to raise an army with which to deliver the Netherlands from their 
cruel oppressors. 

For more than forty years the valiant Dutch struggled 
on, never despairing of their final success. They took 
part in many notable battles and sieges under William, 
their great leader, and finally (July 26, 1581), they made 
their famous Declaration of Independence and set up the 
Dutch Republic. 



270 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Three years later, William met his death at the hands of 
a hired assassin. Philip, failing to conquer his formidable 
foe in battle, had announced that he would give a title of 
nobility and a large sum of money to anyone who would 
deliver Wilham into his hands ''dead or alive." In 1584, 
WiUiam was struck down. ''As long as he lived," says our 
American historian, Motley, "he was the guiding star of 
a whole nation; and when he died, the little children 
cried in the streets." 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Write a short essay on William of Orange. 

2. In what respects does Ufe in Holland differ from life in the United 
States? 

3. Do you think that we have any lessons to learn from the Dutch? 

4. How was WilUam of Orange the George Washington of Holland? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 
Alva, arva Antwerp, ant'werp 



CHAPTER XXV 
ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN THE FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 

Even after the death of ''Father William," the Dutch 
fought valiantly against their Spanish oppressors. Twenty- 
five years of fighting elapsed before the Spaniards could 
be induced to acknowledge the independence of the Nether- 
lands, and even then they did it in a roundabout way. 

During a part of this time, the Spaniards were compelled 
to fight the English as well as the Dutch. Elizabeth was 
the queen of England at this time and, as a powerful 
advocate of the Protestant religion, she was cordially dis- 



ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 271 

liked by King Philip of Spain and his men. They looked 
upon her as a usurper — a person having no right what- 
ever to the throne — and plotted to place Mary Queen 
of Scots, the cousin of Elizabeth, upon the English throne 
in her stead. It was said that the men who had planned 
the murder of the Prince of Orange were planning to put 
Elizabeth out of the way in the same manner. Knowledge 
of this alleged plot spread over England and it was soon 
seen that the sturdy Englishmen, Catholic as well as 
Protestant, were ready to rally to the side of their queen 
and defend her from all harm. So a few months after the 
the death of '^ Father William," a number of Enghshmen 
formed an association without regard to religious beliefs 
and took a vow to defend their queen, in so far as they 
were able, against all harm. In case she were assassinated 
secretly, they said that they would send Mary Queen of 
Scots 'Ho the grave instead of to the throne." 

In the meantime, the feeling between the English and 
the Spaniards was becoming more intense. The English 
sympathized greatly with the struggling Dutch and were 
sending aid to them in their fight for independence. The 
Dutch appreciated this sympathy and assistance and in- 
vited Elizabeth to be their queen. This honor she de- 
clined, but she did send an army over to the Netherlands 
to fight against the Spaniards. 

In addition to this army, hordes of venturesome young 
Enghshmen, attracted by the heroic struggle which the 
Dutch were making, crossed over to the Netherlands and 
enlisted as volunteers in the army of that country. Many 
of these were whole-souled, hard-fisted, rough-and-ready 
men who enjoyed a good knock-down fight and stood 



272 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



ever ready to lend a hand to the ^^under-dog^' in any 
contest. 

Sir Philip Sidney. The most famous of these soldiers 
of fortune was Sir Philip Sidney. Sidney was the Chevalier 
Bayard of England. He was a man of good family, hand- 
some, educated, refined, and in every sense a gentleman. 
He was received at the court of Queen Elizabeth with 

marked favor, and William of 
Orange pronounced him ''one 
of the ripest statesmen in 
Europe." Sidney was also 
brave and venturesome and, 
hke many Englishmen of his 
day, dearly loved a good fight 
with the hated Spaniard. In 
1585, he was eager to embark 
with Sir Francis Drake upon 
an expedition against the Span- 
iards in the West Indies, but 
was prevented by Queen Ehza- 
beth from doing so because she 
feared, as one writer puts it, that she might ''lose the 
brightest jewel of her times." She did lose him, how- 
ever, in the following year, 1586, when he fell in the 
battle of Zutphen, while fighting against the Spaniards 
for the liberty of the Dutch. His deeds in this battle 
were heroic in the extreme. When the fighting v/as 
fiercest, "there glittered the gilded armor of our gallant 
Sidney — as he spurred his white charger through the 
storm of bullets, now to encounter a fiery foe, anon to 
save a friend imperiled by unequal numbers. Two horses 




Sir Philip Sidney 



ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 



273 



were shot beneath him, and he quickly mounted a third. '^ 
While dashing over the prostrate bodies of the slain to 
rescue a friend from death, he was struck by a bullet and 
fell mortally wounded. As he was being carried from the 
field, he asked for a drink of water which was obtained 
with difficulty because the supply was short. As he held 
the decanter to his lips, his eye caught the appeaUng 
glance of a dying soldier. 
Without tasting the water, he 
handed it over to the suffering 
man and said, ^^Thy necessity 
is greater than mine." Sixteen 
days later, this most perfect 
specimen of a cultured and 
chivalrous gentleman passed 
away. It was said of him that 
^^he treated rich and poor, his 
own servants, and the noblemen 
who were his guests alike 
and alike courteously, con- 
siderately, cheerfully, affection- 
ately — so leaving a blessing wherever he went." His 
body was taken back to London and buried in the famous 
St. Paul's Cathedral. 

The Death of Mary Stuart. In the early part of the 
year following the death of the noble Sidney (1587), Mary 
Stuart, Queen of Scots, was beheaded in Fotheringay 
Castle, on the order of Queen Ehzabeth. The queen felt 
that Mary was plotting against her and came to the 
conclusion that she would be safer with Mary out of 
the way. 




Mary Stuart 



274 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Upon the death of Mary, Phihp, King of Spain, claimed 
the EngUsh crown for himself or for his daughter, upon the 
ground that he was descended from a member of the 
English royal house. In order to enforce his claim, he 
gathered together an immense fleet in the harbors of 
Spain and Portugal and made ready to invade England. 
There was every reason why he should hurl his force 
against the British Isles. In the first place, he wished to 
dethrone Elizabeth and thus take vengeance upon her for 
the death of Mary Stuart. He also wished to put down 
the Protestant religion, to suppress English piracy in 
America, and to shut off the assistance which was being 
given by the English to the followers of William of Orange. 
Before he was ready to sail, however. Sir Francis Drake, 
the British sea-rover, dashed into Spanish harbors and set 
fire to a number of ships, as they lay at anchor. He sailed 
boldly into the Spanish harbor of Cadiz and, after driving 
to cover the warships which stood guard, coolly loaded 
his own vessels with as much of the Spanish supplies as 
he dared attempt to carry away and then set fire to the 
rest, after cutting their cables and setting them adrift. 
More than one hundred ships, loaded with valuable sup- 
plies for the invasion of England, were thus left a mass 
of blazing wrecks. The ''Dragon," as the Spaniards called 
Drake, went on his way in high glee. When he returned 
to England, he reported that he had '^singed the beard of 
the King of Spain." This singeing delayed Philip's invasion 
of England for a year. 

Drake did more destruction, however, before getting 
back to his native country. For days, he hovered about 
the Spanish coasts, plundering and sinking the vessels 



ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 275 

that came his way. He then dashed into the harbor at 
Coruna and repeated his daring exploit of Cadiz. Again he 
shpped away and, near the Azores, captured a great Span- 
ish ship on its way from America, laden with treasure. 
The very audacity of this bold sea-dog took away the 
breath of Europe and struck terror into Spanish hearts. 
One day. King Philip invited a lady of his court to ride 
with him in his barge on one of the small Spanish lakes, 
but she declined because, as she said, she was afraid that 
Sir Francis Drake might appear and capture them. 

As a result of this set-back, the invasion of England had 
to be put off to the following year and, in the meantime, 
the shipyards of England resounded with axes, hammers, 
and saws. When the Spanish fleet finally appeared, the 
English navy was ready for battle. 

** The Invincible Armada." Finally, after years of prep- 
aration, everything was ready and the '^Invincible Ar- 
mada," as Philip boastingly called it, set out for England. 
But the English were not to be caught napping. Keen- 
eyed watchers patrolled the coast and scanned the water 
of the English Channel, as they were expecting the Spanish 
fleet to come in sight at any moment. While they were 
waiting, the officers of the English fleet and army amused 
themselves by bowling on the green and playing other 
games. On a pleasant afternoon in July, 1588, a famous 
group of English commanders were bowling near Plymouth 
in the southern part of England. Sir Francis Drake, the 
man who '' held the candle to King Philip's beard," was 
there. Sir John Hawkins, slave-dealer and pirate, and 
Sir Martin Frobisher, the hero of the Arctic seas, formed 
part of the company. Lord Howard, the high admiral 



276 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



of England and a patriotic Roman Catholic, was also a 
member of this distinguished group. 

While the bowling match was in progress, a small, swift 
ship, under full sail, appeared in the Plymouth harbor. 
Her commander hurriedly sought out the English captains 




The Bowling Match 

and informed them that on that morning he had seen the 
Spanish Armada off the coast of Cornwall. This was 
interesting and important news and part of the company 
dashed hastily for the shore. Drake, with his accustomed 
coolness, however, stopped them and insisted that they 
should finish the match. ''There is time to finish the 
game first," he explained, ''and beat the Spaniards after- 
wards." Drake did not have a very high respect for 
Spanish skill and valor. 



ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 277 

The Fleet Appears. It was not a false alarm. One 
hundred and thirty great black hulks appeared in the 
English Channel, carrying thirty thousand men and three 
thousand cannon. They also carried racks and thumb- 
screws and nearly one hundred executioners. The English 
ships, following the advice of Drake, permitted the Span- 
ish squadron to sail up the Channel unmolested. The 
British boats then closed in upon the rear and the fight 
was soon on. 

The Contrast. The two fleets differed greatly. The 
Spanish boats were larger and stood up higher out of 
the water, so that their gunners might command the decks 
of the enemy's ships. These large, clumsy boats carried 
more soldiers than sailors and but very few cannon. The 
British boats, on the contrary, were somewhat smaller, 
much more speedy, and carried more sailors than soldiers. 
They also had more and better guns. In many instances, 
the nimble English ship, with its skillful sailors and longer 
range guns, was able to shoot a Spanish ship to sphnters 
and then withdraw unharmed. 

The Slaughter off Calais. Finally the Spanish fleet 
halted and dropped anchor off the city of Calais, on the 
north coast of France, with the English only two miles 
away. The ready wits of the British were devising a 
plan to dislodge them. The plan was put into effect 
shortly after midnight on the following day, which hap- 
pened to be Sunday. Out of the inky darkness, eight 
English ships, filled with combustible material and coated 
with pitch, were rowed silently into the midst of the 
Spanish fleet, lying peacefully at anchor. At a given 
signal, the torch was applied and the fierce flames from the 



278 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



burning ships lit up the sky. Before the panic-stricken 
Spaniards could make out what was going on, the blazing 
ships, propelled by wind and tide, were bumping against the 
sides of their vessels. A panic ensued. Cables were cut and 




Sir Francis Drake Receiving Don Pedro's Sword 

The Spanish Admiral with forty of his officers and all his treasure was brought 
a prisoner on board the "Revenge." Drake treated him with courtesy, and 
he was afterwards ransomed for three thousand pounds. 

the Spanish fleet went out to sea, drifting in confusion 
before the wind. Early in the morning, Drake and his 
companions closed in on the Spaniards. Three large 
galleons were sunk and three others foundered helplessly 



^ 






a 



X 




ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 279 

on the shore, and the splendid ship of Admiral Don Pedro 
de Valdes fell into the hands of Drake. 

The Spaniard still had ships enough left, but his spirit 
was gone. As the historian Green puts it, ^'huddled 
together by the wind and the deadly English fire, their 
sails torn, their masts shot away, the crowded galleons 
had become mere slaughter-houses. Four thousand men 
had fallen, and bravely as the seamen fought they were 
cowed by the terrible butchery." The commander, in 
despair, called a council of war and it was determined to 
make an attempt to get back to Spain by rounding the 
northern coasts of Scotland and Ireland. This delighted 
the British. ''Never anything pleased me better,'' Drake 
wrote, ''than seeing the enemy fly with a southerly wind 
to the northward." And he was probably right when he 
said that the commander of the Spanish fleet, the Duke of 
Sidonia, would soon be wishing for his quiet home among 
the orange-trees in Spain. 

The Pursuit. The fate of the Armada was practically 
sealed when the English fleet closed in and cut off its 
retreat. The Spaniards soon found that they were bot- 
tled up in the German Ocean with the English vessels pur- 
suing them in front of a strong wind. The Spanish fleet 
had planned to stop at the Netherlands and transport the 
Spanish army over to England. You can imagine the 
dismay and disappointment of the Spanish soldiers as they 
stood on the shore and saw the terror-stricken Armada flee- 
ing madly towards the north. The English hung doggedly 
on the rear, sinking and burning the Spanish ships and pick- 
ing off the Spanish seamen. "The feathers of the Spaniards," 
said an English seaman, " were plucked one by one." 



280 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



The Work of Destruction. For two days, Drake and 
Howard and the other Enghsh commanders gave chase 
to the flying squadron. Then with anmiunition and 
supphes exhausted, they turned back in disappointment. 
The Spaniard, however, was not yet safe. He immediately 
encountered a foe far more dangerous than the Enghsh sea- 
dogs. While off the Orkney 
Islands, a terrific northern 
storm broke over the fleet. 
Some of the ships were 
dashed to pieces against the 
cliffs of the Irish coast. Eight 
thousand Spaniards were 
strewn along the beach near 
the Giant's Causeway. An 
English sea captain counted 
eleven hundred bodies cast 
up by the sea on the Sligo 
coast. The poor unfortu- 
nates who succeeded in get- 
ting ashore fared even worse 
than their companions, as 
many of them were robbed 
and slain while others were 
shipped to England with halters about their necks. Queen 
Elizabeth did not wish to put these men to death, neither 
would she permit them to remain in England ; so she 
packed them off to Spain, 'Ho recount the worthy achieve- 
ments of their Invincible Armada." 

One hundred and twenty ships had set sail against 
England and of these only fifty returned to Spain, '^bear- 




The Flight of the Spanish Armada 



ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 281 

ing ten thousand men, stricken with pestilence and death.'' 
Twenty thousand soldiers, including the flower of the 
Spanish nobihty, had perished while England lost scarcely 
one hundred men. 

In order to commemorate the victory, Queen Elizabeth 
caused a medal to be struck with this inscription: ''God 
blew with his wind and they were scattered." It is true 
that ''the winds had done their part, but the victory was 
mainly due to the seamanship of the English mariners and 
the skill of English shipwrights." 

The Importance of the Defeat of Spain. It may seem 
like a waste of time to tell the story of the defeat of the 
Spanish Armada in an introduction to American history; 
but, as a matter of fact, this great sea-fight had a very 
important bearing on American colonization. Before suc- 
cessful English colonies could be planted in America, it 
was necessary that England should control the ocean 
routes. As John Fiske, an eminent historian, says, it was 
necessary "to destroy the naval power of Spain before 
England could occupy the soil of North America. The 
defeat of the Invincible Armada was the opening event in 
the history of the United States. It was the event that 
made all the rest possible. Without it, the attempts at 
Jamestown and Plymouth could hardly have been more 
successful than the attempt at Roanoke Island." Just why 
the attempt at Roanoke failed, we shall see in the following 
chapter. For the present, it is only necessary for us to 
remember that the defeat of Spain opened the way for Eng- 
lish colonization and that henceforth the English colonies 
would be free from the danger of such a Spanish attack as 
that which ruined Coligny's ill-fated colony in Florida. 



282 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Do you think Elizabeth had any other reason for helping the Dutch 
than her sympathy on account of religion? 

2. Locate on your map the place where the Spanish Armada met defeat. 

3. What advantages had the British in this battle? 

4. Why was " the defeat of the Invincible Armada the opening event in 
the history of the United States " ? 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Calais, kal'a Sidonia. se-don'I-d 

Coruna. k6-r6on'ya Zutphen. zut'fen 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE EARLY ATTEMPTS OF THE ENGLISH TO 
FOUND COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA 

The first permanent English settlement in North Amer- 
ica was made at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. This was 
one hundred and ten years after John Cabot had made his 
famous voyage to the New World. Although England is 
usually very energetic and enterprising in planting colonies 
and securing new territory, in this instance she was very 
slow in following up the advantage of the Cabot voyages. 
For some strange reason, the English really took very 
little interest in the voyages of John Cabot. They looked 
upon his expeditions as failures. They knew that Cabot 
had sailed away in search of the gold and spices of the 
East and had returned empty-handed. They also knew 
that Vasco da Gama had returned to Lisbon a year or two 
later, laden with rich eastern treasures. Consequently they 
seemed to forget the bleak and inhospitable shores visited 



EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 



283 



by John Cabot and turned their thoughts in other di- 
rections. 

It is also true that the Pope's Line of 1493 had given 
America to Spain. This too had some influence in delay- 
ing Enghsh colonization. Another and very important 




c^'*5>- 



CENTRAL 
AMERICA 



L I POJTES CO , N Y 



French, Spanish, and English Explorations in America up to 1600 

reason for England's delay was the fact that she was not 
strong enough upon the sea before the defeat of the In- 
vincible Armada to defy the power of Spain. Now, how- 
ever, things had changed. The Protestant Reformation 
had taken place and England had become a Protestant 
country. The Pope's decrees were no longer considered 
binding. It should also be noted that since the defeat 



284 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

of the Armada, England was no longer afraid of the 
Spaniards upon the sea. 

The Seamen. The Enghsh people of this time were 
more active and enterprising than they had ever been 
before and their action and enterprise were best reflected 
in the daring deeds of their briUiant seamen. It was 
during this reign, as we have seen, that Sir Francis 
Drake, the man who ''singed the beard of the King of 
Spain," made his famous voyage around the globe. Martin 
Frobisher and John Davis had carried the English flag 
to the extreme northwest in searching for the passage to 
India and Captain John Hawkins, the founder of the Eng- 
lish slave trade, had befriended the woe-begone Huguenot 
colony on St. John's River in Florida. These daring sea- 
men, however, were intent upon exploration, gold hunting, 
and the plundering of Spanish ships, and apparently gave 
little or no thought to colonization. 

Gilbert and Raleigh. But while the Drakes and the 
Hawkinses looked upon the planting of colonies in the 
American wilderness as a rather prosy business and would 
have none of it, there were other men of the time who saw 
great possibilities in the colonization of the New World. 
The pioneers in the English colonization of North America 
— the fathers of the English colonial idea — were Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert and his step-brother. Sir Walter Raleigh. 
These men saw that there was more wealth, in all proba- 
bility, in the fertility of the soil than there was in the 
mines of the new world. 

Gilbert, a bright English lad, was born near Dartmouth, 
about twenty years before Ehzabeth became queen. He 
went to college at Oxford and then entered the army, 



EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 



285 



where he was briUiantly successful. The New World 
attracted his attention, and he wrote a book about the 
discovery of a passage to China and India. At a later 
time (1578), he asked the queen to give him permission to 
establish a colony in North America. The queen com- 
plied with his request and gave him the first colonial 
charter ever granted by an English monarch. This char- 
ter gave him permission to take 
possession of any lands in North 
America, then unsettled, and in 
return for this privilege he 
promised to give the queen one 
fifth of all the gold and silver 
which he might obtain. He 
was to rule absolutely over his 
colony, subject only to the 
wishes of the queen. The most 
important clause in this docu- 
ment yet remains to be men- 
tioned. The charter guaranteed 
to Gilbert and his followers all 
of the rights and privileges of 

Englishmen. In other words, the members of the new 
colony were to have the same rights and privileges which 
the people of England possessed at that time. It was for 
these same rights and privileges that our forefathers fought 
two centuries later in the American Revolution. It is not 
too much to say that the charter granted to Gilbert con- 
tained the germ of the war for American independence. 
The First Voyage. With this precious document in his 
possession, Gilbert set out for Newfoundland in 1579 with 




Sir Humphrey Gilbert 



286 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

a small fleet of vessels. He was accompanied by his step- 
brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, a handsome, brilUant, and 
attractive young man of twenty-six, who had just returned 
from fighting as a volunteer in the Netherlands. 

Both Gilbert and Raleigh had visions of the future 
greatness of America. They also believed, as did Sir 
Francis Drake, that the best way to dispose of the Span- 
iard was to whip him upon the sea. They also thought 
that England should have colonies in America for pur- 
poses of trade and to serve as outposts against Spain in 
time of war. It will be remembered that the Spanish 
Armada had not yet been defeated, but these two far- 
seeing men were able to look into the future and foresee 
the deadly contest which was certain to take place between 
England and Spain. They wanted to be ready for that 
contest when it came. 

Gilbert, apparently, did not care to follow the frozen 
trail of Frobisher in the northern latitudes but set out for 
Newfoundland, attracted, no doubt, by the rich fisheries 
of that locality. Nothing came of this voyage. The ships 
were buffeted about by severe storms, one of them was 
destroyed in a fight with a Spanish warship, and the rest 
were compelled to return to England. 

Another Voyage (1583). Not daunted by this rough 
experience, Gilbert set out upon another voyage to New- 
foundland as soon as he could procure the necessary men, 
money, and ships. In 1583, he sailed from Plymouth 
harbor with a small squadron. Raleigh and other friends 
furnished the capital for the expedition, and the queen 
sent him a gold anchor as a token of good-will and 
esteem. 



EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 287 

In August, Gilbert sailed into the harbor of St. John, 
where Cartier had been nearly fifty years before. He 
found about four hundred ships in the vicinity, most of 
them owned by the Spaniards and the Portuguese and all 
of them engaged in fishing. Calling the fishermen to- 
gether, he went ashore and set up in their presence a 
column with the armor of England upon it and then 
proceeded to take possession of the island in the name of 
his queen and country. 

Again the storms came on and shattered his fleet, but 
after some repairs he proceeded to explore the southern 
coast of the island in search of a suitable site for a colony. 
Near Cape Breton, another tempest tossed him about and 
his largest vessel was smashed against a sunken rock. 
Nearly one hundred men were lost. Gilbert, however, 
found safety in a tiny vessel. He now had only one ship, 
in addition to the little skiff in which he himself sailed, 
and this was loaded with worthless rock, which was sup- 
posed to contain silver ore. The two ships started home- 
ward and again a September gale tossed them about. 
The commander of the companion ship, being greatly 
alarmed, shouted across the waves to Gilbert that they 
were all Hkely to be lost. But the cool and fearless 
navigator, sitting quietly with a book in his hand, shouted 
cheerily back to his panic-stricken mate:, '^The way to 
Heaven is as near by sea as by land." 

Longfellow tells the story in this way: 

'^ Beside the helm he sat: 
The book was in his hand. 
'Fear not,' he cried, 'heaven is as near 
By water as by land.'" 



288 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



The storm increased, night fell, and the darkness was 
intense. Each ship was nervously watching the other. 
At midnight, the captain, who had shouted the warning, 
saw the lights on Gilbert's ship suddenly go out. The 
vessel had sunk and all were lost. The brave Gilbert 
went to his death, but the ship, bearing the worthless 
rock, came into port in safety. 

The Exploits of Raleigh. 
Sir Walter Raleigh continued 
to send expeditions to America, 
after the death of his brave 
brother. Raleigh, the famous 
soldier, sea-rover, colonizer, and 
author, was born in Devon- 
shire, England, in 1552. He 
was a student at Oxford Uni- 
versity and, when a boy of 
seventeen, had gone as a soldier 
to France to fight for the 
Huguenots. After that, he 
fought against Spain in the 
Netherlands and then went into 
partnership with Gilbert in an attempt to found colonies 
in North America. Fortunately, he was not with Gilbert 
on his fatal voyage and he was not daunted by the death 
of his brave partner. He still had faith in America and 
spent a large fortune in his colonizing ventures. 

He made up his mind, however, to abandon Newfound- 
land, and to go to the milder climate of the south; so 
in 1584, he sent out two ships under the command of 
PhiUp Amadas and Arthur Barlow. On the fourth of 




Sir Walter Raleigh 



EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 289 

July, Amadas and Barlow reached the coast of what is 
now known as North Carolina, where they penetrated 
Pamlico Sound and visited Roanoke Island. Waving 
the flag of England over this beautiful place, they took 
possession of it in the name of their queen. Says Fiske, 
'^They admired the noble pine trees and red cedars, mar- 
veled at the abundance of game, and found the native 
barbarians polite and friendly." They explored the shore 
for a considerable distance and named the country 
'^ Virginia" in honor of Elizabeth, the maiden queen. 

They made no attempt at settlement at this time, but 
they did try to converse with the Indians and to get 
information from them in regard to the country. They 
were not very successful in carrying on conversation with 
the natives, but they reported when they got back home 
that they had found the Indians to be ''people most 
gentle, loving, and faithful." Later colonists had a very 
different story to tell. 

The Roanoke Colony (1585). The glowing accounts of 
these explorers encouraged Raleigh to attempt to plant 
a colony in southern latitudes. In the spring of 1585, he 
sent out a fleet of eight vessels, bearing one hundred and 
eight men bound for the New World. Ralph Lane was 
to have charge of the colony and Sir Richard Grenville, 
Raleigh's cousin, commanded the fleet. Grenville scoured 
the seas and plundered the rich ships of the Spaniards for 
a time and after narrowly escaping shipwreck on a point 
of land, which the company named ''Cape Fear," landed 
his little company on Roanoke Island. As soon as they 
touched the shore, trouble with the natives began. One of 
the Indians stole a silver cup and Grenville in retaliation 



290 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

set fire to their standing corn. The fight between the 
redmen and the pale-face colonist was now on. After 
starting this conflict, Grenville turned over the colony to 
Lane and sailed away. Lane, a man of energy and good 
sense, explored the country in search of a suitable site 
for his settlement. He went some distance into the 
interior and even tried to find a strait leading to India. 

The colonists were a shiftless and worthless lot and 
things did not go well. They could play the pirate or 
hunt for gold, but tilling the soil was real work and they 
did not care for it. They were suffering from a lack of 
food and were beginning to pine for the folks at home 
when the ''Dragon" Drake suddenly appeared with a fine 
fleet of twenty- three ships. Lane and his starving and 
homesick companions were only too glad to be taken back 
to England. They started on their way rejoicing, but had 
scarcely gotten out of sight when Grenville sailed into 
port with suppUes. Much to his astonishment, he found 
that the place had been abandoned. No living creature 
appeared in view, although he searched the surrounding 
country carefully. Leaving fifteen of his men to the rather 
lonesome task of holding the site of the colony, Grenville 
departed. 

** The Lost Colony. '* Planting colonies in the New 
World seemed to be up-hill business, and yet Raleigh 
was apparently not discouraged. In 1587 he sent out 
another band of colonists to the Carolina coast — this 
time under the control of John White, an artist. The 
company included seventeen women and about one hun- 
dred and thirty men. They intended to stop at Roanoke 
Island and take on board the fifteen men left by Gren- 



EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 



291 




ville and then proceed to the shore of Chesapeake Bay. 
They touched at Roanoke, but could find no trace of the 
fifteen men left on the lonesome vigil. The fort was in 
ruins and deer were quietly grazing on the spot where the 
colony once stood. The 
little guard had probably 
been massacred by the 
Indians. Instead of going 
on to the Chesapeake coun- 
try, White left a company 
of eighty-nine men, women, 
and children at Roanoke 
and went back to England 
in the same year. 

Soon after White's return 
home, the '^Invincible Arm- 
ada '^ appeared in the Eng- 
lish Channel. There was 
now no time to think of 
anything but the Spanish 
foe. Sir Walter did not 
forget his struggling colony, 
however, and on two dif- 
ferent occasions he fitted out relief ships to be sent to 
Roanoke. The ships, however, were either impressed into 
the service of the government or driven back to port by 
the Spaniards, and for three years the colony was left to 
shift for itself. When White did finally succeed in getting 
to America he was too late. The place was deserted, 
grass was growing in the fort, and the whole scene was 
one of desolation. The colonists had gone — nobody has 



Early Settlements of the English, 

French, and Spanish in the New 

World 



292 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



ever known where, but a great many guesses have been 
made. They may have been killed by the Indians, or 
they may have gone to live with friendly natives. They 
are spoken of to this day as "Raleigh's Lost Colony." 




The Landing at Jamestown 

Here in 1607 was founded the first permanent English colony on the North 
American continent. 

Raleigh had now spent his own large fortune and also 
all of the money he could get from the Queen and other 
friends and had not succeeded in planting a successful 
colony on American soil. It was soon seen that the found- 
ing of colonies was too large and too costly an enterprise 
for private individuals to undertake. And so companies 



EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 293 

were organized to do the work which Gilbert and Raleigh 
had failed to accomplish. 

A body of men known as the London Company was 
organized for this purpose and these men succeeded in 
establishing the first permanent English colony on our 
shores. It was located at Jamestown, Virginia, and the 
date of its founding is 1607. At this point the history of 
the English colonies in America begins and our present 
story comes to an end. 

In this ^'Introduction to American History" we have 
tried to show that Europe is the Mother of America. The 
beginnings of American History are to be found in the 
Old World. The roots of our history and institutions 
may be traced to European soil. American history is the 
continuation and the outgrowth of the history of Europe. 
American civilization, on the whole, is based on the civiliza- 
tion of Europe, although it has developed along independ- 
ent lines and is now very different in some respects from 
the civilization of the mother country. We cannot, there- 
fore, understand the history of our own country without 
knowing something of the history of Europe. We trust 
that a study of this little book will enable you to under- 
stand better and to appreciate more fully the wonderful 
story of your country's history from the founding of 
Jamestown to the present day. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 

1. Neither Gilbert nor Raleigh succeeded in establishing a permanent 
settlement in America. Why? Was the work they did of no avail? 

2. Imagine yourself a member of " Raleigh's Lost Colony." Make a 
diary showing what really became of yourself and companions. 



294 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

3. To-day in this New World Spain's mark is indelibly imprinted 
on Mexico, and Central and South America. The French influence is felt in 
Canada. The territory occupied by the United States is the sphere of 
English influence so, naturally, we have been more interested in following 
the progress of England. 

As a result of the Spanish-American War (1898), several miUion people 
who were subjects of Spain and who speak the Spanish language, have 
been taken imder our flag. Do you not think it well for the United States 
to begin to give more attention to Spanish life, customs, and language, in 
order to do our best for these people? 

Remember, too, the great advantage it would give the United States 
commercially in Central and South America, if we imderstood the Spanish 
better. 

PRONOUNCING LIST 

Breton, brgt'un Frobisher. fr6b'Ish-er 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 295 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

This text-book for the sixth grade is an attempt to follow out 
the recommendations of the Committee of Eight of the Ameri- 
can Historical Association. The first seventeen chapters show 
how far back the roots of our history extend and what have been 
the contributions of the Ancient World to the ''New World." 
The last nine chapters cover the period of discovery and explora- 
tion down to the settlement of Jamestown. These points have 
been emphasized: 

1. The steady westward movement, from the five early na- 
tions dealt with in the first chapter, on to Greece, to Rome, 
and through the expansion of the Roman Empire to England; 
the overthrow of the Romans by the Germans; the beginning of 
modern European States; the revival of learning following the 
Dark Ages; the discovery of America; and the struggle for su- 
premacy in the New World. 

2. The growth of knowledge of the earth and its people; the 
changing conception of the shape and size of the earth; the 
contributions of early peoples to the discovery of America, and 
the consequent broadening of man's conception of his relation 
to the world. 

3. The contributions of each of these great Nations and 
peoples to the stream of world civilization. An effort has been 
made to show clearly how much we at this day are indebted to 
all the ages that have gone before — that we, here in the United 
States, are truly ''the heirs of all the ages." 

This text takes it for granted that the seventh and eighth 
years will be given chiefly to a serious study of United States 
history. 

The treatment has been in the main chronological, without 
any attempt, however, to give a connected history of any na- 
tion. The principal aim has been to adapt the material of his- 
tory to the sixth-grade child in such a way that he may acquire 
the historical sense and perspective, so that he may feel some- 
thing of the spirit of history and may have an interest in human 
progress and development. 



296 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Howsoever excellent any text-hook may he it will not teach itself. 
It is only the tool in the hands of the pupil by means of which 
the teacher may guide him into the realization of the aims 
stated above. So it is thought well in this connection to make 
some specific suggestions to teachers of history — suggestions 
most of which are the outcome of actual experience in classroom 
work. These suggestions are based upon the following behefs: 

1. That the material aspects of the past must furnish the 
foundation. Vivid images of concrete things in the past may 
best be created by pictures, models, casts, and the Hke. 

2. That the particular acts of the children or of their elders 
must furnish the basis for comprehension of historic acts. These 
should be supplemented by word-pictures and stories concretely 
told. 

3. That children must be led to think and feel about certain 
men and acts as these men themselves felt, by: 

a. Dramatization of historic scenes. 
h. Writing imaginary letters. 

c. Imagining themselves present at certain scenes, and re- 

lating what happened. 

d. Keeping imaginary diaries. 

e. Expressing written opinions on certain acts, either de- 

defending or opposing. 
/. Learning and reciting parts of famous speeches or poems. 

4. Collective facts can only be securely fixed through the 
massing of particular instances. 



SUGGESTIONS 

I. Use of the Recitation Period 

1. One of the standards of judging classroom teaching in any 
subject is the extent to which it provides for the individuality 
of the child. There is danger in history teaching that it will 
become merely a ''cramming process" and that the child will 
have no opportunity to react to the mass of historical information 
with which he comes in contact. The child's natural curiosity 
and desire to know more about things should always be en- 
couraged. So the recitation period, instead of being a time when 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 297 

children ''recite'^ facts read from the text, should rather be a 
time for asking questions and for clearing away misconceptions. 

Let the recitation period be given over at times merely to 
finding some five problem which is a felt need on the part of 
the children, and subsequent periods may be given to having 
children offer their contributions to its solution. The absence 
of many fact questions at the ends of the chapters is to be 
noted. Questions arising from within the children themselves 
will set the first and most fundamental requirement for sys- 
tematic study. 

2. This period should be used at times to show the children 
how to use a text. Certain chapters should be read through 
slowly and critically with frequent reference to maps, diction- 
aries, pronouncing fist, and other supplementary material. 

3. Other chapters, as for instance Chapter XIX on '' Colum- 
bus," should be read straight through as a reading lesson. 

4. This period is the best time for the massing of single 
details into collective facts, in other words, for the organization 
of material and the making of summaries. 

5. The recitation is also the proper place for fixing the 
few important dates which pupils need to know. These should 
be thoroughly memorized. 



II. Supplementary Material 

Maps 

1. The maps inserted throughout will be found very helpful. 

2. The use of the double-size desk outline maps such as are 
published at trivial cost by the McKinley Pubhshing Co., 
Philadelphia, is strongly recommended. 

3. A map of the world is absolutely necessary. 

4. A blackboard outhne map for tracing discoveries and 
explorations. A. Flanagan Co., Chicago, pubHsh such maps. 

Pictures 

1. Perry Picture Co., Maiden, Mass., have sets of pictures 
excellent for all periods of history. These cost one cent each. 



298 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

2. Encourage children to bring pictures to school, illustrating 
points in the lessons. A recognition of many of the world's 
famous men, buildings, works of art, etc., should be one of the 
products of history study. 

Books 

In the suggestions for teachers on each chapter, certain books 
are recommended. These are books that should be in the Hbrary 
of every teacher of history. 

Many of the children will come from homes well supplied 
with good books. Encourage them to read from them, to bring 
them to the class, and to make oral reports on parts read. 

The Community 

In almost every community there will be one individual who 
has visited some of the famous historical shrines. Have the 
class invite him to talk to them about such places. 

III. A History Game 

Let each pupil personify some character with whom all 
members of the class are famihar, for instance, Christopher 
Columbus. He should have read from other sources so that 
when he personifies before the class the individual chosen, he 
will introduce as much new material as possible. He will not 
tell the things commonly known about Columbus. The other 
members of the class hsten for the purpose of identifying him, 
but no pupil must announce who he thinks it is. He must 
make the pupil on the floor disclose his identity, by asking him 
some question such as, *'Are you the man who sailed from Palos 
in 1492 to find a western passage to the Indies?" To which 
the pupil on the floor who is personifying Columbus will reply, 
''Yes, I am Christopher Columbus." 

If a question be asked which shows that the one asking it 
does not know the individual personified, as for instance, "Are 
you the man who singed the beard of the King of Spain?" 
then the one on the floor must say, "No, I am not Sir Francis 
Drake." The questions may also be such as will bring out 
further information about the individual so as to help the ques- 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 299 

tioner to know who it is. As for instance, ''Did you live in the 
fourteenth century?" The pupil on the floor should answer 
only by ''yes" or "no," without saying when he hved. No pupil 
should be allowed to ask a question until he has at least a tenta- 
tive opinion as to who is personified. 

The same game may be played for historic buildings and 
places. 



The following recommendations on the different chapters are 
not intended to be exhaustive, but are such as may be carried 
out by any teacher, and such as do not require extensive or 
expensive equipment. They are in most cases intended to be 
merely suggestive, and may be adapted by any teacher to his 
particular environment and equipment. 

CHAPTER I 

1. Maps. The use of a desk outUne map by the pupil to 
locate each of the nations as taken up in the text will be found 
very helpful. On this map he can print the name of the nation, 
its principal products and industries. He may also locate the 
important rivers, the "Royal Road," the trade routes of the 
Phoenicians, etc. Then as a summing up of the chapter, on a 
line drawn from the site of each nation and extending toward the 
west, place what this nation has contributed to the world's 
civiUzation. 

The teacher may use a larger outKne map to guide and 
direct the work of the children. 

2. Old Testament as a source-book. Use as supplementary 
wherever it will help, as for instance: 

a. Story of Joseph and his brothers — richness of land of 

Egypt. 

b. Building of Temple at Jerusalem. 

c. The Ten Commandments. 

3. Pictures. Perry Picture Co., of Maiden, Mass., make excel- 
lent pictures. Have a collection of these and ask the children to 
look out for pictures bearing on the text. 



300 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



CHAPTER II 

1. Preparatory to understanding Greek civilization, have the 
children use their geographies to work out the islands of Greece, 
the long and irregular coast-hne, the high mountains, and se- 
questered valleys, and lead them to see the effect of these physical 
features on the industries and character of the people. 

2. Locate on the outline map used with Chapter I: Athens, 
Sparta, Salamis, Aegean Sea, Marathon, Thermopylae, etc. 

CHAPTER III 

1. If possible get a copy of ''A Reading from Homer" by 
Alma-Tadema. Let the children imagine themselves the auditors. 
The scene may be in some measure made real by the teacher 
reading from Bryant's Translation of the Odyssey. 

2. Books. 

a. Hawthorne's version of some famous old Greek stories — 
Tanglewood Tales; Riverside Literature Series, Hough- 
ton, Mifflin Co., Boston. 

h. Harding, S. B. — Greek Gods, Heroes and Men. 

CHAPTER IV 

1. The Acropolis, and the Parthenon should become so 
familiar that pupils will always recognize them. Pictures of Ionic, 
Doric, and Corinthian columns should be used and the distinc- 
tive characteristics of each pointed out. 

2. The children should also become thoroughly famihar with 
a few of the Greek masterpieces of sculpture, as the Hermes by 
Praxiteles, the Discobolus by Myron, Zeus by Phidias, etc. Perry 
Picture Co. furnish pictures of Greek Art and Architecture. 

3. Tarbell's ''History of Greek Art." 

CHAPTER VI 

On the outline map used with Chapters I and II, have the 
children mark the location of Greek colonies and trace the cam- 
paigns of Alexander. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 301 



CHAPTER VII 



1. Macaulay's ''Lays of Ancient Rome" furnishes splendid 
material for supplementing this chapter. Read some of these 
stirring lays to the children. 

2. Have children trace on the map Hannibal's route and the 
spread of the Roman Empire. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Use the map every day in developing the lesson. Be sure 
that the children know what is meant by the Roman Empire. 

CHAPTER IX 

1. Read from Lamb's Tales the story of Shakespeare's "Julius 
Caesar." 

2. Get a copy of "Ben Hur," by Lew Wallace, and read to the 
children the description of the chariot race. 

CHAPTER X 

Have children bring new testaments to class and with maps 
follow Paul on one of his great missionary journeys. Estimate 
the number of miles he traveled. See Acts of the Apostles, 
XV-XXXI. Call attention to hardships he had to endure, to 
the value of his Roman citizenship, to the speech to the men 
of Athens, Acts XVII, etc. 

CHAPTER XI 

The Nibelungenlied — sometimes called the German Iliad — 
gives a clear conception of German ideals. Read from some 
one of the numerous translations the adventures of Siegfried, 
the hero. 

CHAPTER XII 

Eva March Tappan's " European Hero Stories " and Harding's 
"Story of the Middle Ages" are excellent supplementary books 
and can be read by the children. These may be used with 
Chapter XII and following chapters. 



302 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 



CHAPTER XIII 

Books. Sidney Lanier's ''The Boy's King Arthur" or any 
other of the several good King Arthur Stories; Jennie Hall's 
''Viking Tales." 

CHAPTER XIV 

Some of the more important dates in EngUsh history should 
be kept before the pupils from now on: 

a. The coming of the Romans. 

b. The Anglo-Saxon Invasion. 

c. The Danish Invasion. 

d. The Norman Conquest. 

CHAPTER XV 

1. Robinson's ''Readings in European History," Vol. I, "How 
the EngUsh won the Magna Charta." 

2. Eva March Tappan's "European Hero Stories," "Winning 
of the Magna Charta." 

CHAPTER XVI 

1. Read from Harding's "Story of the Middle Ages," chap- 
ters describing the hfe in castle and in village. 

2. Make a drawing on the blackboard showing plan of castle 
and the surroundings. 

CHAPTER XVII 

1. See Eva March Tappan's "European Hero Stories," on 
the Crusades. 

2. From the Old South Pubhshing Co., Boston, you may get 
for five cents, a reprint of Marco Polo's description of Japan 
and Java. It is in the Old South Leaflets series. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

1. A blackboard outUne map of the world, on which may be 
traced the voyages and explorations of the next chapters is 
almost indispensable. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 303 

2. Suppose you put the problem of ''Finding a New Trade 
Route to the East," to the children before they read this 
chapter. They must have a clear conception of the problem, 
of the equipment at hand to solve it, its difficulties, etc. It will 
be necessary for you to read this chapter first so that you may 
be prepared to show the difficulties as they suggest different 
solutions. Let them work on it until they are satisfied with 
their answer. Then let them read this chapter. 

CHAPTER XIX 

1. Washington Irving's ''Columbus," Book 3, describes his 
first voyage. Extracts from this read to the children will help 
to make vivid and real the courage required to make a success 
of his first voyage. 

2. Old South Leaflets Nos. 29 and 31, on Columbus. 

CHAPTER XX 

1. Use the blackboard outfine map to trace the routes of 
these explorers. Different colored crayons may be used for the 
different nations. 

2. Old South Leaflets Nos. 37 and 115, "Voyages of the 
Cabots." 

CHAPTER XXI 

1. You need now a good outfine map of North America. The 
children should be suppHed with desk-size maps. Let them 
trace the explorations of the Spanish in one color and place the 
date and name on the line. The same map may be used in 
succeeding chapters, using different colors for different nations. 

2. Old South Leaflets, No. 35, "Cortez' account of City of 
Mexico"; No. 36, "Death of De Soto." 

CHAPTER XXII 

Continue the map begun in preceding chapters, writing name 
and date of the explorer on the line showing his route. Old 
South Leaflet No. 116, "Sir Francis Drake on Coast of 
Cafifornia." 



304 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

CHAPTER XXIII 

Old South Leaflet No. 89, '' Founding of St. Augustine." 

CHAPTER XXIV 

Let the children consult their geographies on Holland, its 
location, use of dikes, occupation of people, etc. 

CHAPTER XXVI 

Old South Leaflets, No. 118, ''Gilbert's Expedition"; No. 119, 
''Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke." 



INDEX 



Acropolis, the, 44 

Adrianople, battle of, 105, 106 

Alaric, 109 

Alexander the Great, 59-66; empire 

of, 64, 65 
Alexandrians, 64, 66 
Alfred, King, 122-130 
Alva, Duke of, 268 
Amadas and Barlow, 288, 289 
America, discovery of, 198-204 
Americus Vespucius, 222, 223 
Anglo-Saxons, 124 
Architecture, Egyptian, 3, 5-7; 

Greek, 45-50 
Ariovistus, 83, 104 
Aristides, 51, 57 
Aristotle, 42, 43, 53, 57 
Armada, Invincible, 275-281, 283, 

291 
Athena, 48 

Athenians, 21, 25, 38, 52, 53 
Athos, Mount, 24 
Attila, 106-108, 162 
Augustus, 90, 96 
Aztecs, 234, 241 

Balboa, 224, 225, 233, 246 
Bayard, Chevalier, 258-260 
"Beggars," 268 
Black death, 38 
Britons, 84-87, 109, 110 
Byron, Lord, 27 



Cabot, John, 220-223, 249, 282, 283 
Caesar, 79-89, 104, 109 
Cambyses, 15 
Cannae, battle of, 75, 76 
Canterbury, 113; pilgrims to, 161; 

Tales, 161 
Canute, King, 129-131 
Carthage, 71-78 
Cartier, 229-232, 260 
Castles, 153-155 
Cathedrals, 116 
Chaldeans, 8-10 
Chalons, battle of, 107-108 
Charlemagne, 119-123, 128 
Chaucer, 161 
Chivalry, 154 
Christianity, in Roman Empire, 96, 

97; spread of, 112-122 
Cincinnatus, 69, 70 
Circus Maximus, 93 
Civilization, "cradle of," 4, 17; 

"missionaries of," 12 
Coligny, 260, 281 
Coliseum, 92, 93 
Cologne, Cathedral of, 117 
Colonies, English attempts, 282- 

293 
Columbus, Christopher, 1, 188-219 
Commons, House of, 146 
Constantine, 99 

Constantinople, 165, 171, 177-179 
Coronado, 246, 247 



306 



INDEX 



Cortez, 234-240, 246 
Crusades, 141, 161-172 
Cyclops, 32, 33 
Cyrus, 15 

Da Gama, 217, 225, 242 

Danes, 124-127, 131 

Darius, 15, 24, 63 

"Dark Ages," 112 

De Gourgues, 264, 265 

Delphi, Oracle of, 26 

Demosthenes, 39, 40, 57 

De Soto, 241-243, 246 

Diaz, 186, 187, 217 

Diogenes, 56, 57 

Dionysus, theater of, 36, 

Discovery, beginnings of, 176-187 

Drake, Sir Francis, 254, 256, 272- 

280, 284 
Dutch, 266-270 

Education, in Middle Ages, 117-119 

Edward the Confessor, 134-136 

Egypt, 4, 5 

Egyptians, 4-9, 26 

EHzabeth, Queen, 248-254, 272, 
273, 281 

England, rival of Spain, 246-257, 
270-281; efforts to found col- 
onies, 282-293 

English life, 149-157 

Ethelbert, 115 

Explorers, 158-170 

Ferdinand and Isabella, 195, 198, 

210, 218 
Feudalism, 153 
Florida, 261-265 
Fort CaroUne, 262, 265 



Forum, Roman, 91, 92 
France, rival of Spain, 257-265 
French explorers, 229-232 
Frobisher, Sir Martin, 275, 284 

Gaul, 79-84 

Genoa, 174, 190, 195 

Germans, 83; successors of Ro- 
mans, 102-111 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 284-287 

Gilds, 151, 152 

Gladiators, 93 

Good Hope, Cape, 186, 187 

"Gordian Knot," 62 

Greece, 19-30, 76 

Greeks, 18-30; as writers, 30-43; 
as builders and artists, 44-50; 
as athletes, 48, 49; life and 
character, 50-57; civilization, 
58; colonies, 58, 59, 100, 111 

Gregory the Great, 114 

Grenada, 196, 198 

Grenville, Sir Richard, 289, 290 

Gunpowder, 166 

''Hanging Gardens," 9, 10 
Hannibal, 72-77 
Harold, King, 135, 136 
Hawkins, Sir John, 253, 256, 275, 

284 
Hebrews, 13, 14 
Helen of Troy, 30 
HeUespont, 12, 24 
Hengist and Horsa, 110, 113, 115, 

124 
Henry, Patrick, 40 
Henry the Navigator, 183-186, 

190 
Henry II, 140, 150, 159 
Henry VII, of England, 249 



INDEX 



307 



Henry III, 146, 147 
Hermann, 105 
HoUand, 266-270 
Holy Land, 162-170 
Homer, 31-35, 51 
Huguenots, 260-262 
Huns, 106-108, 162 

Iliad, 32-35 

Indians, 205, 206, 230 

Jamestown, 282, 292 
Jerusalem, 166, 169 
John, King, 143-146 
Jutes, 110, 113, 115, 124, 131 

Karnak, Temple of, 7 
Knights, 156, 157 

Lane, Ralph, 289 
Lebanon Mountains, 11 
Leonidas, 25 
'^ Lost Colony," 290-293 
Luther, Martin, 267 

MageUan, 225-228, 254 

Magna Charta, 144, 146 

Mandeville, Sir John, 175 

Marathon, battle of, 22, 23 

Marco Polo, 172-176 

Mariner's Compass, 11 

Mary, Queen of Scots, 273, 274 

Mediterranean Sea, 11 

Menelaus, 30 

Menendez, 262-265 

Mexico, conquest of, 234-241 

Middle Ages, 149-157 

Miltiades, 22 

Mississippi River, discovery of, 241 

Moeris, lake, 5 



Monasteries, 117 
Montezuma, 235, 236, 240 
Montreal, 230 
Moors, 196, 198 

Nebuchadnezzar, 9 
Nero, 97, 98 
'^ New World," 1,2 
Nile River, 4, 8 
Norman Conquest, 135 
Normans, 138-142 
Northmen, 131-133, 176 

Odoacer, 110, 119 
Odyssey, 32-35 
''Old World," 1,2 
Otis, James, 40 
Oxford, 113, 150 

Palestine, 14 

Panama, 224 

Pantheon, the, 92 

Parhament, 148 

Parthenon, the, 45, 46, 48 

Paul, the Apostle, 96 

Peloponnesian War, 38 

Pentelicus, 45 

Pericles, 35, 53-55, 90 

Persian Wars, 21-28, 37, 51, 62 

Persians, 12, 15-17, 22-26 

Peter the Hermit, 163-165 

Phidias, 46-48, 57 

Philip the Second, of Spain, 267- 

274 
Philip of Macedon, 40, 41 
Philippines, 226 
Phoenicians, 11, 12, 19, 26 
Picts, 109 
Pilgrims, 158-170 
Plataea, 28, 52 



308 



INDEX 



Plato, 53 Spaniards, 187, 234-245, 246, 253, 

Polyphemus, 32, 33 260, 274-281 

Ponce de Leon, 246 Spanish Missions, 244 

Pope's Line, the, 210, 211, 247, Sparta, see Spartans 



248, 260, 283 
Port Royal, 261, 262 
Portuguese, 181-186, 216, 217, 219 
Pyramids, 5, 6 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 250-252, 284- 

290 
Rameses, 1, 2 

Revival of learning, 179, 180 
Ribot, 261, 262 
Richard the Lion-hearted, 140- 

142, 167 
Roanoke Colony, 289-291 
Romans, 67-87 
Rubicon, 88 
Runnymede, 113 



Spartans, 21, 25, 26, 38 

Susa, 16 

Thermopylae, battle of, 24, 25 

Thucydides, 38 

ToscaneUi, 192, 193, 197, 219 

Tournament, the, 155 

Troy, 30, 32 

Turks, 162-170 

Tyrians, 60-64 

Ulysses, 32 
Universities, 150 



Venice, 172-175 
Vercingetorix, 80, 82 
Verrazzano, 229 
St. Augustine, 113, 114-117, 262, Vikings, 131, 132 



264 
St. Lawrence River, 229 
St. Thomas of Canterbury, 159, 

160 
Salamis, battle of, 26-28, 52 
Sardis, 16 
Scots, 109 

"Sea of Darkness,'^ 181, 182 
Senlac, battle of, 137 
''Seven Cities," 246 
Sidney, Sir Philip, 272, 273 
Simon de Montfort, 147, 148 
Socrates, 52 

Solomon's Temple, 12, 13 
Solon, 56, 57 
Sophocles, 35 



ViUage, the, 152 
Virginia, 282, 293 

Waldseemiiller, Martin, 1, 223 
Walter the Penniless, 165 
Wedmore, battle of, 126 
White, John, 290, 292 
WiUiam of Orange, 268-270 
WiUiam the Conqueror, 135-139 
William II, of England, 139, 140 
Witan, 131 

Xerxes, 24, 25, 26, 28 

Zeus, 49 

Zutphen, battle of, 272 



Elementary American History and Government 

For 7th and 8th Years 
By JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN 

PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND POLITICS, INDIANA UNIVERSITY 

AND 

THOMAS FRANCIS MORAN 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND ECONOMICS, PURDUE UNIVERSITY 

The introduction deals with The Old World and The New; 33 chapters 
are arranged in 9 great periods of history; Appendices as follows: Declara- 
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for additional reading at close of each chapter. There are 9 maps in color; 
42 in black and white, abundant half-tone illustrations, many full page. 
New Edition. 535 pp. $1.00. 

The authors seek to explain the America of To-day — its civi- 
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LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., PUBLISHERS 

FOURTH AVENUE AND 30TH STREET NEW YORK 



THE HORACE MANN READERS 

By Walter L. Hervey, Ph.D., Member of Board 
of Examiners, New York City; formerly President of 
Teachers College; and Melvin Hix, B.S., Principal 
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A new series of basal readers shaped by these controlling 
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This material is varied, and was selected because of its 
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Primer S .30 Daily Lesson Plans, First Year . . $ .75 

First Reader 32 Daily Lesson Plans, Second Year . .75 

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Fourth Reader 55 Practice Primer 30 

Fifth Reader 65 Introductory Second Reader . . . .40 

Sixth Reader 65 Introductory Third Reader . . . 

Daily Lesson Plans is the teacher's manual for the first 
and second years' work with The Horace Mann Readers. 
Every step of each day's lesson is planned and explained. 



LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., Publishers 

FOURTH AVENUE AND THIRTIETH ST., NEW YORK 



FEATURES OF 

THE HORACE MANN READERS 

The Horace Mann Readers are highly organized — words 
being developed into independent yet mutually related 
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LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., Publishers 

FOURTH AVENUE AND THIRTIETH ST., NEW YORK 



ALEXANDER'S SPELLING BoOK 

By GEORGIA ALEXANDER, 

Supervising Principal of Public Schools, 
Indianapolis, Indiana. 

Complete . ... ♦ . $0.25 

Part I. For Grades i to 4 . . $0.16 

Part II. For Grades 5 to 8 . . $0.20 

Also a Syllabicated Edition: 



Complete 
Part I. 
Part II. 



$0.25 
$0.16 
$0.20 



This book sets a new standard in the teaching of spelling. 
The words are very carefully graded, both as to difficulty in 
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in spelling from the first to the eighth grades, inclusive. 

The following Opinions of the book (unsyllabicated) are 
printed by permission: 



Miss Edith A. Scott, Principal, 
Training School for Teachers, 
Rochester, N. Y. — **I have never 
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Madison Avenue School, Grand 
Rapids, Mich.:—' 'The Spelling 
Book has a better content ana 
method of presentation than any 
other book I know." 



LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., - 



NEW YORK 



